SC 1232 Study Guide Exam 4 Winter 2010

Chapter 10: nervous system 1.

General functions of the nervous system.
1.The nervous system is composed of neural tissue, including neurons and neuroglial cells, blood vessels and connective tissue.
2.Organs of the nervous system are divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems.
3.Sensory receptors detect changes in internal and external body conditions.
4.The integrative functions bring sensory information together and make decisions that motor functions act upon.
5.Motor impulses stimulate effectors to respond.
6.The motor portion of the peripheral nervous system involved in voluntary activities is the somatic nervous system.
7.The motor portion of the peripheral nervous system involved in involuntary activities is the autonomic nervous system.
8.A neuron in includes a cell body, cell processes and the organelles usually found in cells.
9.Dendrites and the cell body provide receptive surfaces.
10.A single axon or rises from the cell body and maybe enclosed in a myelin sheath and a neurilemma.

Types of neurons.
1.Sensory neurons conducting nerve impulses from receptors in peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord.
2.Interneurons transmit nerve impulses between neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
3.Motor neurons conducting nerve impulses from the brain or spinal cord out to effectores-muscles or glands.

Types of neuronal glial cells
1.Astrocytes are star shaped cells between neurons in the blood vessels.
2.Astrocytes provide structural support, formation of scar tissue, transport substances between blood vessels and neurons, communicate with one another and with neurons, mop up excess ions in neurotransmitters, and induce synapse formation.
3.Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaves within the brain and spinal cord, and produce nerve growth factors.
4.Microglia provide structural support and phagocytosis or immune protection.
5.Ependyma form a porous layer through which substances diffuse between the interstitial fluid of the brain and spinal cord and the cerebral spinal fluid.
6.Schwann cells are cells with abundant, lipid rich membranes that wrap tightly around the axons of peripheral neurons.
7.Schwann cells increase the speed of neurotransmission.

The synapse.
1.A synapse is a junction between two nerve cells.
2.A synaptic cleft is the gap between parts of two cells in the synapse.
3.Synaptic transmission is the process by which the impulse in the presynaptic neuron signals the postsynaptic cell.
4.If a graded impulse from a dendrite or cell body triggers an action potential, it then travels along the axons to a synapse.
5.Axons have synaptic knobs at the distal ends that secrete neurotransmitters.
6.The neurotransmitter is released whenever impulse reaches the end of axons, and the neurotransmitter defuses across the synaptic cleft.
7.A neurotransmitter reaching a postsynaptic neuron or other cell may be excitatory or inhibitory.

Cell membrane potential.
1.A cell membrane is usually polarized as a result of an unequal distribution of ions on either side of a membrane.
2.Channels in membranes that allow passage of some ions but not others control ion distribution.

Distribution of ions.
1.A high concentration of sodium ions is on the outside of the membrane, and a high concentration of potassium ions is on the inside of the cell.
2.The difference in ion concentration across the cell membrane, and the resulting membrane potential, is maintained by sodium-potassium pumps.
3.The maintenance of normal resting potential of a nerve cell requires ATP to drive the sodium-potassium pumps.

Resting potential.
1.Large numbers of negatively charged ions, which cannot diffuse through the cell membrane, are inside the nerve cell.
2.Interesting nerve cell, more positive ions leave the cell and enter it, so the inside of the cell membrane develops a negative charge with respect to the outside.

Local potential changes.
1.Stimulation of in membrane affects its resting potential in the local region.
2.The nerve cell membrane is depolarized if it becomes less negative.
3.The nerve cell membrane is hyperpolarized if it becomes more negative.
4.Reaching threshold potential triggers an action potential.

Action potentials.
1.At threshold, sodium channels open and sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
2.Slightly later, potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the cell membrane.
3.The rapid change in cell membrane potential is called an action potential.
4.Many action potentials can occur before active transport reestablishes the original resting potential.
5.The propagation of action potentials along a nerve fiber is called an impulse.

All or none response.
1.A nerve impulses and all or none response.
2.If a stimulus of threshold intensity is not applied to an axon, and action potential is not generated.

Refractory period.
1.The refractory period is a brief time following passage of the nerve impulse when the membrane is unresponsive to an ordinary stimulus.
2.During the absolute refractory period, the membrane cannot be stimulated.
3.During the relative refractory period, the membrane can be stimulated with a higher intensity stimulus.

Impulse conduction.
1.An unmyelinated axon conducts impulses that travel over its entire surface.
2.A myelinated axon conducts impulses that travel from node to node.
3.Impulse conduction is more rapid on myelinated axons with large diameters.
4.In a nerve impulse traveling along a myelinated axon, action potentials occur only at the nodes.
5.Action potentials in myelinated axons appears to jump from node to node and is thus referred to as saltatory conduction.

Events leading to nerve impulse conduction.
1.Nerve cell membrane maintains resting potential by diffusion of sodium and potassium ions down there concentration gradients as the cell pumps them up the gradients.
2.Neurons receive stimulation, causing local potentials, which may sum to reach threshold.
3.Sodium channels in the local region of the membrane open.
4.Sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
5.Potassium channels in the membrane open.
6.Potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the membrane.
7.The resulting action potential causes an electric current that stimulates an adjacent portions of the membrane.
8.Action potentials occur sequentially along the length of the axon as a nerve impulse.

Chapter 11: nervous system 2

Introduction.
1.Bone and protected membranes called meninges surround the brain and spinal cord.

Meninges.
1.The meninges consists of a dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.
2.Cerebral spinal fluid occupies the space between the arachnoid and pia maters.

Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid.
1.Ventricles are connected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem.
2.Cerebrospinal fluid fills the ventricles.
3.Choroid plexuses in the walls of the ventricles secrete cerebrospinal fluid.
4.Ependymal cells of the choroid plexus regulate the composition of cerebral spinal fluid.
5.Cerebrospinal fluid circulates through the ventricles and is reabsorbed into the blood of the dural sinuses.

Spinal cord.
1.The spinal cord is a nerve column that extends from the brain into the vertebral canal.
2.The spinal cord terminates at the level between the first and second lumbar vertebrae.
3.The spinal cord is the center for spinal reflexes.
4.Reflexes are autonomic, subconscious responses to changes.
5.Spinal reflexes help maintain homeostasis.
6.The knee-jerk reflex employs only two neurons.
7.Withdrawal reflexes are protective actions.
8.The spinal cord provides a two-way communication system between the brain and structures outside the nervous system.
9.Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to the brain.
10.Descending tracts carry motor impulses to muscles and glands.
11.Many of the fibers in the ascending and descending tracts cross over in the spinal cord or brain.

Brain.
1.The brain is the largest and most complex part of the nervous system.
2.The brain contains nerve centers that are associated with sensations.
3.The brain issues motor commands and carries on higher mental functions.

Brain development.
1.The brain develops from a neural tube with three cavities-the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Structure of the cerebrum.
1.The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
2.The cerebral surfaces marked by ridges and grooves.
3.Sulci divide each brain hemisphere into lobes.
4.The cerebral cortex is a thin layer of gray matter near the surface.
5.White matter consists of myelinated nerve fibers that interconnect neurons with the nervous system and communicate with other body parts.

Functions of the cerebral.
1.The cerebrum is concerned with higher brain functions, such as thought, reasoning, interpretation of sensory impulses, control involuntary muscles, and memory storage.

Basal nuclei.
1.Basal nuclei are masses of gray matter located deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
2.The neurons of the basal nuclei interact with other brain areas to facilitate voluntary movement.

Diencephalon.
1.The diencephalon contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
2.The thalamus selects incoming sensory impulses and relays them to the cerebral cortex.
3.The hypothalamus is important in maintaining homeostasis.

Brainstem.
1.The brainstem extends from the base of the brain to the spinal cord.
2.The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
3.The reticular formation filters incoming sensory impulses, arousing the cerebral cortex into wakefulness in response to meaningful impulses.
4.Normal sleep results from decreasing activity of the reticular formation, and paradoxical sleep occurs when activating impulses are received from some parts of the brain, but not by others.

Cerebellum.
1.The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres connected by the vermis.
2.The cerebellum functions primarily as a reflex center, coordinating skeletal muscle movements and maintaining equilibrium.

Peripheral nervous system.
1.The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord to all body parts.
2.The peripheral nervous system can be subdivided into somatic and autonomic portions.

Structure of peripheral nerves.
1.A nerve consists of a bundle of nerve fibers surrounded by connective tissues.

Nerve and nerve fiber classification.
1.Nerves are cord like bundles of nerve fibers.
2.Nerves can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or mixed nerves, depending on which type of fibers they contain.
3.Nerve fibers within the central nervous system can be subdivided into groups with general and special functions.

Cranial nerves.
1.12 pairs of cranial nerves connect the brain to parts in the head, neck, and trunk.

CN I is the olfactory nerve

CN II is the optic nerve

CN III is the occulomotor nerve

CN IV is the trochlear nerve

CN V is the trigeminal nerve and gives sensation over the face

CN VI is the abducens nerve

CN VII is the facial nerve which innervates the muscles of the face

CN VIII is the vestibulocochlear nerve

CN IX is the glossopharyngeal nerve

CN X is the vagus nerve

CN XI is the accessory nerve

CN XII is the hypoglossal nerve

Spinal nerves.
1.31 pairs of spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord.
2.Spinal nerves provide a two-way communication system between the spinal cord and the upper limbs, lower limbs, neck, and trunk.
3.Each spinal nerve emerges by a dorsal root in the ventral root.
4.A dorsal root contain sensory fibers and has a dorsal root ganglion.
5.A ventral root contains motor fibers.

Autonomic nervous system.
1.The autonomic nervous system functions without conscious effort.
2.The autonomic nervous system is concerned primarily with regulating visceral activities that maintain homeostasis.
3.Autonomic functions are reflexes control from centers in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord.
4.Autonomic nerve fibers are associated with ganglia where impulses are integrated before distribution to effectors.
5.The integrative function of the ganglia provides a degree of independence from the central nervous system.
6.The autonomic nervous system is divided into two divisions-sympathetic and parasympathetic.
7.The sympathetic division prepares the body for stressful and emergency conditions.
8.The parasympathetic division is most active under ordinary conditions.

10.Autonomic neurotransmitters.
11.Sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers secrete acetylcholine.
12.Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers secrete norepinephrine and are adrenergic.
13.Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers secrete acetylcholine and are cholinergic.
14.The different effects of the autonomic divisions are due to the different neurotransmitters the postganglionic fibers release.

Actions of autonomic neurotransmitters.
1.Neurotransmitters combine with receptors and alter cell membranes.
2.Acetylcholine acts very briefly.
3.Norepinephrine and epinephrine may have more prolonged effects.

Control of autonomic activity.
1.The central nervous system largely controls the autonomic nervous system.
2.The medulla oblongata uses autonomic fibers to regulate cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory activities.
3.The hypothalamus uses autonomic fibers in regulating visceral functions.
4.The limbic system and the cerebral cortex control emotional responses to the autonomic nervous system.

SC 1332 Study Guide Exam 4 Winter 2010

Chapter 21: water, electrolytes, and acid base balance.

Introduction.
1.The maintenance of water and electrolyte balance requires that the quantities of these substances entering the body equal the quantities leaving it.
2.Altering the water balance necessarily affects the electrolyte balance.

Distribution of body fluids.
1.The intracellular fluid compartment includes the fluids and electrolytes cell membranes enclose.
2.The extracellular fluid compartment includes all fluids and electrolytes outside cell membranes.
3.Extracellular fluids have high concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate ions.
4.Intracellular fluid contains relatively high concentrations of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions.
5.Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure regulate fluid movements.
6.Sodium ion concentrations are especially important in fluid movement regulation.

Water balance.
1.The thirst mechanism is the primary regulator of water intake.
2.Drinking and the resulting stomach distention inhibit the thirst mechanism.
3.Water is excreted in the urine, feces, and sweat.
4.Insensible water loss occurs through evaporation from the skin and lungs.
5.Urine production regulates water output,
6.the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of the nephrons regulate water output.
7.ADH from the hypothalamus and poster to a Terry gland stimulates water reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.
8.If excess water is taken in, the ADH mechanism is inhibited.

Electronic balance.
1.The most important electrolytes in the body fluids are those that released ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate.
2.Electrolytes are usually obtained in sufficient quantities in response to hunger and thirst mechanisms.
3.In the severe electrolyte deficiency, a person may experience a salt craving.
4.The greatest electrolyte loss occurs a result of kidney functions.
5.Regulation of sodium ion involves the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.
6.Calcitonin from the thyroid gland and parathyroid hormone for the parathyroid gland regulates calcium ion concentration.

Acid base balance.
1.Acids or electrolytes to release hydrogen ions.
2.Bases combine with hydrogen ions.
3.Aerobic respiration of glucose produces carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
4.Carbonic acid dissociates to release hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.
5.Anaerobic respiration of glucose produces lactic acid.
6.Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids release acidic ketone acidic.
7.Strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, ionize more completely.
8.Weak acids, such as carbonic acid, ionize less completely.
9.Buffer systems are composed of sets of two or more chemicals.
10.Buffers convert strong acids into weaker acids or strong bases into weaker bases.
11.Buffer systems minimize pH changes.
12.The respiratory center located in the brainstem helps regulate pH by controlling the rate and depth of breathing.
13.Increasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentrations stimulates chemo receptors associated with the respiratory center.
14.Nephron's secrete hydrogen ions to regulate pH.
15.Chemical buffer systems act rapidly.
16.Physiological buffers act more slowly.

Chapter 22: reproductive systems.

Functions of the male reproductive organs.
1.Seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells.
2.Interstitial cells also called Leydig cells produce and secrete male sex hormones.
3.Epididymis store sperm cells undergoing maturation and conveys sperm cells to ductus deferens.
4.Ductus deferens conveys sperm cells to ejaculatory duct.
5.Seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostaglandins that help neutralize the acidic components of semen.
6.Prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid that helps neutralize the acidic components of semen and enhances sperm cell motility.
7.Boulder urethral gland also called Cowper's glands secrete fluid that lubricates the end of the penis.
8.Scrotum encloses, protects and regulates temperature of testes.
9.The dartos muscle is the muscle responsible for wrinkling the scrotum.
10.The penis conveys urine and semen to the outside of the body.

Formation of sperm cells.
1.The epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules include sustentacular or Sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells.
2.The sustentacular cells support and nourish the spermatogenesis cells.
3.The spermatogenic cells give rise to spermatogonia.
4.The process of spermatogenesis produces sperm cells from spermatogonia.
5.Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes and sperm cells by one half.
6.Spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells from each primary spermatocyte.

Structure of a sperm cell.
1.The sperm head contains a nucleus with 23 chromosomes.
2.The sperm body contains many mitochondria.
3.The sperm tail propels the cell.

Hormonal control of male reproductive functions.
1.The male body remains reproductively immature until the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone or GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins.
2.FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.
3.LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce male sex hormones.
4.Inhibin prevents over secretion of FSH.
5.Male sex hormones are called androgens.
6.Testosterone is the most important androgens.
7.Testosterone stimulus the development of the male reproductive organs and causes the test is to descend.
8.Testosterone is responsible for the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics.
9.A negative feedback mechanism regulates testosterone concentration.
10.As the concentration of testosterone rises, the hypothalamus is inhibited, and the anterior pituitary secretion of gonadotropins is reduced.
11.As the concentration of testosterone falls, the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropins.

Organs of this female reproductive system.

Functions of the female reproductive organs.
1.The ovary produces oocytes and female sex hormones.
2.The urine tube conveys secondary oocytes towards the uterus.
3.The urine tube is the sight of fertilization and conducts the developing embryo to the uterus.
4.Uterus protects and sustains embryo during pregnancy.
5.The vagina conveys uterine secretions to outside of body and provides open channel for the offspring during birth process.
6.The labia majora encloses and protects other external reproductive organs.
7.The labia minora forms the margins of the vestibule and protects the openings of the vagina and urethra.
8.Vestibule is the space between the labia minora that contains a vaginal and urethral openings.
9.The vestibular glands, or Bartholin's glands,secrete fluid that moistens and lubricates the vestibule.

Ovary structure.
1.The ovaries are subdivided into a medulla and the cortex.
2.The medulla is composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
3.The cortex contains ovarian follicles and is covered by cuboidal epithelium.

Primordial follicles.
1.During prenatal development, groups of cells in the ovarian cortex form millions of primordial follicles.
2.Each primordial follicle contains a primary oocyte and a layer of flattened epithelial cells.
3.The primary oocyte begins to undergo meiosis, but the process soon halts and does not resume until puberty.
4.The number of oocyte steadily declines throughout the life of a female.

Oogenesis.
1.Beginning at puberty, some oocytes are stimulated to continue meiosis.
2.When a primary oversight undergoes oogenesis, it gives rise to a secondary oocyte in which the original chromosome number is reduced by one half.
3.A secondary oocyte may be fertilized to produce a zygote.

Follicle maturation.
1.At puberty, FSH initiates follicle maturation.
2.During maturation, the primary oocyte enlarges, the follicular cells proliferate, and a fluid filled cavity appears and produces a secondary follicle.
3.Ovarian cells surrounding the follicles form to layers.
4.Immature follicle contains a secondary oocyte surrounded by a zona pellucida and a corona radiata.

Ovulation.
5.Ovulation is the release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary.
6.The secondary oocyte is released when it's follicle ruptures.
1.After ovulation, the secondary oocyte is drawn into the opening of the uterine tube.

Hormonal control of female reproductive functions.
1.A female body remains reproductively immature and till about 10 years of age when gonadotropin secretion increases.
2.The most important female sex hormones are estrogens and progesterone.
3.Estrogens are responsible for the development and maintenance of most female secondary sex characteristics.
4.Progesterone causes changes in the uterus.

Female reproductive cycle.
1.The reproductive cycle is characterized by regularly recurring changes in the uterine lining culminating in menstrual flow.
2.A reproductive cycle is initiated by FSH, which stimulates maturation of the follicle.
3.Granulosa cells of a maturing follicles secrete estrogens, which are responsible for maintaining the secondary sex traits and thickening the uterine lining.
4.Population is triggered when the answer to a Terry gland releases a relatively large amount of LH.
5.Following ovulation, the follicular cells and thecal cells give rise to the corpus luteum.
6.The corpus luteum secretes estrogens and progesterone, which cause the uterine lining to become more vascular and glandular.
7.If a secondary oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
8.As the concentrations of estrogens and progesterone to decline, the uterine lining disintegrates, causing menstrual flow.

Menopause.
1.Eventually the ovaries cease responding to FSH, and cycling ceases.
2.Menopause is characterized by a low concentration of estrogens and a continuous secretion of FSH and LH.
3.The female reproductive organs undergo varying degrees of aggressive changes.

Please be prepared to label the following diagrams with an understanding of the function of each anatomical portion:

SC 1332 Study Guide Exam 3 Winter 2009

Chapter 19 – Respiratory System Linda Blackburn
Definitions A&P II – SC1332

1. Respiration – the act of inhaling and exhaling air in order to exchange oxygen for carbon dioxide. This form of respiration is synonymous with ventilation or breathing. Respiration can also consist of different events including:
External Respiration – which is the exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood.
Internal Respiration – which is the exchange of gases between the blood and the body cells.
Cellular Respiration – which occurs in the mitochondria and involves oxygen utilization and production of carbon dioxide by the body cells.
Transport – which is the transport of gases by the blood between the lungs and the body cells.

The following organs make up the upper respiratory tract and include:

2. Nasal Cavity – is the hollow space behind the nose.

3. Nasal Septum – is the dividing wall of bone and cartilage within the nose. The septum runs down the middle of the nose creating a left and right airway. It consists of the septal cartilage, the vomer, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone, the maxillary crest and the premaxilla.

4. Nasal Conchae (turbinate bones) – curled bone shelf that protrudes from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity on each side. They consist of the superior, middle and inferior meatuses. The turbinates are responsible for filtration. As air passes over the turbinate tissues it is heated to body temperature, humidified and filtered The turbinates are also composed mostly of mucosal tissues in the nasal cavity, helping to increase the surface area and allow for congestion and decongestion in response to climate conditions and needs of the body.

5. Sinuses – are air-filled spaces in the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid and sphenoid bones of the skull. These spaces function to reduce the weight of the skull and serve as chambers that affect the quality of the voice. They are also lined with mucous membranes that are continuous with linings of the nasal cavity leading to mucous secretions draining from the sinuses into the nasal cavity.

6. Pharynx – lies posterior to the oral cavity between the nasal cavity and the larnyx. It functions as a passageway for food moving from the oral cavity to the espohagus and for air passing between the nasal cavity and the larnyx. It also important in producing sounds and vocalization. It consists of the oropharnyx, nasopharynx, and the larygopharnyx.

_______________________________________________________________________


The following organs make up the lower respiratory tract and include:

7. Larynx – is an enlargement in the airway superior to the trachea and inferior to the pharynx. It provides a passageway for air moving in and out of the trachea and prevents foreign objects from entering the trachea. Finally, it houses the vocal cords where sound is generated and pitch and volume are manipulated.

8. Trachea – is a flexible, cylindrical tube that extends downward anterior to the esophagus and into the thoracic cavity, where it splits into right and left bronchi. There are about 20 C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that compose the trachea. The gaps in the “rings” are composed of smooth muscle and connective tissue.
It is a passageway for air and is lined with ciliated mucous membranes, which contain many goblet cells, to filter incoming air and to move entrapped particles upward into the pharynx where the mucous can be swallowed.

9. Bronchial Tree – consists of branched airways leading from the trachea to the microscopic air sacs in the lungs (alveoli). It functions to conduct air to the alveoli and the mucous lining continues to filter incoming air. No gas exchange takes place in this part of the respiratory tract.

10. Lungs – are soft, spongy, cone-shaped organs in the thoracic cavity. The right side contains three lobes as opposed to the left side which contains two lobes to accommodate the heart. The lungs contain the air passages, alveoli, blood vessels, connective tissues, lymphatic vessels and nerves of the lower respiratory tract and are the essential respiratory organ.
Their principal function is to transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases is accomplished in the specialized cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli.



11. Thyroid Cartilage – structure that protrudes in the front of the neck and is commonly referred to as the “Adams apple” or the “voice box”. It functions to protect the vocal folds or “vocal cords” which lie directly behind it.

There are eight other cartilages that comprise the structure in and around the trachea which contain the larynx and they are:
Cricoid Cartilage – signals the beginning of the trachea and is the only complete ring of cartilage around the trachea. It functions to provide attachments for muscles, cartilages and ligaments involved in opening and closing the airway and in voice production. It is the landmark used in determining where to make an incision when performing a tracheotomy.
Epiglottic Cartilage – only one of the cartilages in the larynx that is elastic and is attached to the upper border of the thyroid cartilage and supports the epiglottis. The epiglottis allows air to enter the lungs and prevents food and liquids from entering the air passages.
Arytenoid Cartilage (2) – pyramid shaped cartilages located superior to and on either side of the cricoid cartilage. They allow the vocal cords to be tensed or relaxed.
Corniculate Cartilage (2) – are attached to the tips of the arytenoid cartilages. They provide attachments for muscles that help regulate tension on the vocal cords during speech and aid in closing the larynx during swallowing.
Cuneiform Cartilage (2) – are small, cylindrical structures in the mucous membrane between the epiglottic and arytenoid cartilages. They stiffen the soft tissues in the region.

12. Glottis – is the opening between the true vocal folds or vocal cords when they are in a relaxed state.

The bronchial tree branches into several divisions. Beginning with the largest and ending with the smallest – the branches are:

Primary Bronchi – arise from the trachea and consist of a right and left branch. The openings of the bronchi are separated by a ridge of cartilage called the carina. Each bronchus, accompanied by large blood vessels, enters its respective lung.
Secondary or Lobar Bronchi – arise from the primary bronchi, with each one serving as the airway to a specific lobe of the lung – so there are two on the left and three on the right.
Tertiary or Segmental Bronchi – supplies the bronchopulmonary segment of the lung. There are usually ten in the right lung and eight in the left lung.
Intralobular Bronchioles – small branches of the segmental bronchi which enter the basic units of the lung-the lobules.
Terminal Bronchioles – branch from the intralobular bronchioles with about fifty to eight terminal bronchioles occupying a lobule of the lung,
Respiratory Bronchioles – two or more of the bronchioles branch from each terminal bronchiole. They are short and small in diameter and these structures are called “respiratory” because a few air sacs bud from their sides, making them able to take part in gas exchange.
Alveolar Ducts – branch from the respiratory bronchioles.
Alveolar Sacs – thin walled, closely packed outpouchings of the alveolar ducts.
Alveoli – thin walled, microscopic air sacs. They are the primary sites of gas exchange with the blood.

13. Hilum – triangular depression where the structures which form the root of the lung enter and leave the lung. These include the pulmonary artery, the superior and inferior pulmonary veins, and the bronchus, with the bronchial vessels surrounding it.

14. Pleural Cavity – is the potential space between the visceral pleura and the parietal pleura. The parietal pleura are attached to the outer chest wall and the visceral pleura are attached to the lung and other visceral tissues.
15. Lobules – are the smallest divisions of the lung that are still visible to the naked eye that contain the terminal bronchioles, together with their alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli, nerves and associated blood and lymphatic vessels.

16. Inspiration – inhalation or the act of breathing in. The atmospheric pressure due to the weight of the air is the force that moves air into the lungs. At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg. Inspiration also involves the action of muscle fibers within the diaphragm reacting to nerve impulses from the phrenic nerves.

17. Expiration – exhalation or the act of letting the breath out. The forces responsible for normal resting expiration come from the elastic recoil of lung tissues and from surface tensions and the relaxation of the diaphragm. Between breaths the atmospheric pressure is equal between the lungs and the outside of the body.

18. Surface Tension – is the force which holds moist membranes together due to the attraction of water molecules.

19. Surfactant - reduces the surface tension of fluid in the lungs and helps make the small air sacs in the lungs (alveoli) more stable. This keeps them from collapsing when an individual exhales. In preparation for breathing air, fetuses begin making surfactant while still in the womb. Babies that are born very prematurely often lack adequate surfactant and must receive surfactant replacement therapy immediately after birth in order to breathe.

20. Respiratory Volumes – any one of four distinct volumes of air within the lungs.

21. Respiratory Cycle – consists of one inspiration plus the following expiration.

22. Tidal Volume – is the volume of air that enters or leaves during a respiratory cycle. The volume of air an individual is normally breathing in and out.

23. Resting Tidal Volume (Vt) – volume of air entering and leaving the lungs in a respiratory cycle while at rest

24. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) - The maximal volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal inspiration and can also be called complemental air. The maximum volume of air that can be inspired in addition to the tidal volume.

25. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) - The maximum volume of air that can be expelled from the lungs after normal expiration. It can also be called reserve air or supplemental air.

26. Residual Volume (RV) – This is the volume of air left in the lungs after the most forceful of expirations.

27. Vital Capacity (VC) – is the total of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume and the expiratory reserve volume. This capacity is the maximum volume of air a person can exhale after taking the deepest breath possible; with the emphasis on completeness of the expiration.

28. Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – is the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. This is the maximum volume of air a person can inhale following a resting expiration.

29. Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) – is the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume. It is the volume of air that remains in the lungs following a resting expiration. It is the amount of air that stays in the lungs during normal breathing.

30. Total Lung Capacity (TLC) – is the vital capacity plus the residual volume. The volume of air contained in the lung at the end of maximal inspiration and this total will vary with age, sex and body size.

31. Respiratory Areas – group of neurons in the brain which control breathing. These areas can initiate impulses that travel on cranial and spinal nerves to breathing muscles, causing inspiration and expiration. These areas also adjust the rate and depth of breathing to meet the cellular needs for oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide even during times of strenuous exercise. This portion of the brainstem controls the rate and depth of breathing.

32. Medullary Rhythmicity Center – includes two bilateral groups of neurons which extend through the length of the medulla oblongata. These groups are called the dorsal respiratory group (stimulates the muscles of inspiration, primarily the diaphragm) and the ventral respiratory group (stimulates primarily the abdominal and intercostals muscles and used during forceful breathing). This area of the brainstem controls the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration.

33. Partial Pressure – is the amount of pressure each gas contributes and is proportional to its concentration in a mixture of gases. Partial pressure is the pressure which the gas would have if it alone occupied the volume. For example, air is 21% oxygen, oxygen accounts for 21% of the atmospheric pressure, therefore, the partial pressure of oxygen in atmospheric air is 160 mm Hg. (21% x 760 = 160)

34. Peripheral Chemoreceptors – are specialized structures located in the carotid bodies and aortic arches and act to detect decreased arterial partial pressure of oxygen, increased partial pressure of carbon dioxide and increase in acidity of the blood. They then convey the information to the brain (respiratory center) to help regulate homeostasis.

35. Hyperventilation - is the state of breathing faster and/or deeper than necessary, thereby, reducing the carbon dioxide concentration of the blood below normal. It can also be referred to as “over breathing”. Following hyperventilation, it will take longer than usual for the carbon dioxide concentration to reach the level needed to override the conscious effort of breath holding.

36. Alveoli – microscopic air sacs clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts. They are the sites of the vital process of gas exchange between the air and the blood. Alveoli are the functional units of the lung.

37. Alveolar Pores – openings in the walls of some alveoli that permit air to pass from one alveolus to another. This allows for an alternate pathway for air should passages in some portions of the lungs become obstructed.

38. Respiratory Membrane – the alveolar-capillary membrane – is a membrane composed of a capillary wall, an alveolar wall and their respective basement membranes through which blood and inspired air exchange gases. Both the alveolar wall and the capillary wall are composed of Type I cells (simple squamous epithelium).

39. Oxyhemoglobin – is a compound that is formed when oxygen combines with hemoglobin.


There are three ways that carbon dioxide is transported through the body and they are:

40. Carbaminohemoglobin - is a compound formed when carbon dioxide combines with hemoglobin and is one of the forms in which carbon dioxide exits the blood. Though this method is quite effective, carbaminohemoglobin forms rather slowly and only about 15%-25% of carbon dioxide is carried this way.

41. Bicarbonate Ions – These are formed when carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid; then the carbonic acid dissociates to release hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. About 70% of carbon dioxide is transported this way.

42. Carbonic Anhydrase – catalyzes the rapid conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate ions. (CO2 + H2O = Carbonic Anhydrase)

43. Chloride Shift – As bicarbonate ions diffuse out of the red blood cell, chloride ions from the plasma diffuse into the cell, maintaining the electrical balance between ions.

Chapter 20 – Urinary System Linda Blackburn
Definitions A&P II - SC1332

1. Kidneys – reddish brown, bean shaped organ with a smooth surface which is enclosed in a smooth, tough, fibrous capsule. They are located on either side of the vertebral column on the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity and are held in place by adipose and connective tissue.
The kidneys functions to remove metabolic wastes from the blood and excrete them to the outside. They also help to regulate red blood cell production, blood pressure, calcium ion absorption and the volume, composition and pH of the blood.
The kidneys have a depression on their concave side called the renal sinus and through this entrance blood vessels, nerves, lymphatic vessels and the ureter enter. As the ureter enters it expands to from a sac called the renal pelvis and then further divides into two or three major calyces, and they, in turn, are subdivided into eight to fourteen minor calyces. The kidney also contains two distinct regions: a renal (inner) medulla and a renal (outer) cortex. The cortex itself is surrounded by the renal capsule.

2. Renal Sinus - is a hollow cavity within the kidney which is occupied by the renal pelvis, renal calyces, blood vessels, nerves and fat. The entrance to this sinus is termed the hilum.
3. Renal Pelvis – is a funnel like sac located at the proximal end of the ureter and is located within the renal sinus. The renal pelvis is the point where two or three major calyces converge. A small projection called a renal papilla extends into each major calyx. The major function of the renal pelvis is to act as funnel for urine flowing into the ureter.
4. Renal Medulla – is the innermost part of the kidney and is composed of conical masses of tissue called renal pyramids. The medulla contains the structures of the nephrons (functional unit of the kidney) which are responsible for maintaining the salt and water balance of the blood.
5. Renal Cortex – is the outer portion of the kidney between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. It is a highly vascularized granular outer layer of the kidney, containing glomeruli and convoluted tubules, which filter body wastes from the blood, reclaim useful materials, and dispose of the remainder as urine.

6. Renal Capsule – is a fibrous membrane that surrounds the kidney and is covered in a thick layer of adipose tissue. The capsule helps maintain the shape of the kidney and provides some protection from trauma and damage.

7. Renal Arteries – arise from the abdominal aorta and supply blood to the kidneys. The renal arteries carry a large portion of total blood flow to the kidneys - up to 30% of the total cardiac ouput. The renal artery enters the kidney through the hilum and branches off into several interlobar arteries which pass through the renal pyramids.
From these interlobar arteries branch arciform (arcuate) arteries, to interlobular arteries, to afferent arterioles. These afferent arterioles lead to the nephrons (functional units of the kidneys).
8. Afferent Arterioles – final branch of the interlobular arteries. It conveys blood to the glomerulus of a nephron in the kidney.
9. Renal Vein – joins the inferior vena cava as it goes through the abdominal cavity. As the blood leaves the kidney it leaves the efferent arteriole, through the interlobular, arcuate, interlobar and finally exits out the renal vein.
10. Nephrons – is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. The kidney contains approximately one million nephrons.The primary function of the kidneys is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances (sodium salts) by filtering the blood and reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. A nephron eliminates waste from the body, regulates blood volume and pressure, controls levels of electrolytes and regulates blood pH. It is regulated by the endocrine system through hormones (antidiuretic hormone, aldosterone and parathyroid hormone). Finally, the nephrons contain a juxtaglomerular apparatus; which is a specialized region responsible for production and secretion of the hormone renin, involved in the renin-angiotensin system.
11. Renal Corpuscle - initial blood-filtering component of a nephron. It consists of a glomerulus and a glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule).
12. Glomerulus – is a cluster of blood capillaries within the renal capsule of the kidneys. It receives blood from the afferent arteriole in the renal blood flow and empties into an efferent arteriole. The glomerulus functions to filter waste products from the blood and initiate urine formation.
13. Glomerular Capsule or Bowman’s capsule – thin walled, sac-like structure that encloses the glomerulus. It functions as a filter to remove organic wastes, excess inorganic salts, and water.
14. Efferent Arterioles – conducts blood away from the glomerulus of a nephron within the kidney.
15. Nephron Loop or Loop of Henle - the long U-shaped part of the renal tubule, which leads from the proximal convoluted tubule to the distal convoluted tubule and consists of a thick ascending (impermeable to water) and a thin descending (permeable to water) limbs.
The main function of this structure is to create an osmotic concentration gradient in the medulla of the kidney. Movements of ions and water across the walls of the loop enable it to function as a countercurrent multiplier, resulting in the production of concentrated urine in the collecting duct.
16. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus - microscopic structure in the kidney which regulates the function of each nephron. It is located in the arteriolar walls neat the glomerulus that regulates renal blood flow. This structure is vital in regulating the secretion of renin and EPO (erythropoiten) in response to blood pressure changes.
17. Peritubular Capillary System – are tiny blood vessels that travel alongside nephrons and surround a renal tubule allowing for reabsorption and secretion between blood and the inner lumen of the nephron. Ions and minerals that need to be saved in the body are reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries. Those that need to be excreted as waste are secreted from the capillaries into the nephron to eventually be expelled from the body as urine.
18. Urine – is a liquid waste product that is secreted by the kidneys and excreted by the urethra. It plays a vital role in maintaining homeostasis by removing excess water, electrolytes such as sodium, chloride, potassium, and calcium ions, urea and other metabolites from the blood.
19. Glomerular Filtration – is a process in which the glomerular capillaries filter plasma and begin urine formation. This process begins when blood pressure forces fluid through the glomerular capillaries in the kidney into the glomerular capsule.
20. Tubular Reabsorption – this process selectively reclaims just the right amounts of substances, such as water, electrolytes and glucose that the body requires. It transports these substances from the proximal tubule of the nephron into the peritubular capillaries. In this way, many useful solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids), salts and water that have passed through the proximal tubule through the Bowman's capsule, return to the circulation.
21. Tubular Secretion – is the process of substances moving out of the peritubular capillaries (plasma) into the renal tubule for excretion in the urine.
22. Glomerular Filtrate – is mostly water and contains the same solutes as in blood plasma, except for larger proteins. It is filtered through the glomerular capillaries into the glomerular capsule of the renal tubules.

23. Net Filtration Pressure – this pressure is normally positive, favoring filtration at the glomerulus.
Net Filtration Pressure = force favoring filtration - forces opposing filtration
(glomerular capillary (capsular hydrostatic pressure and
hydrostatic pressure) glomerular capillary osmotic pressure)

24. Renin-Angiotensin System – process where the enzyme renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, which is then acted upon by ACE converting it to angiotensin II; ultimately stimulating the adrenal glands to secrete aldosterone. The renin, which is released by the juxtaglomerular cells, helps to maintain blood pressure, plasma sodium, and blood volume. The renin is released in response to stimulation from sympathetic nerves and pressure sensitive cells called renal baroreceptors that are in the afferent arteriole.

25. Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) – it is a hormone released by muscle cells in the upper chambers (atria) of the heart (atrial myocytes), in response to high blood pressure. ANP acts to reduce the water, sodium and adipose loads on the circulatory system, thereby reducing blood pressure.
26. Renal Plasma Threshold – is reached when there are more glucose molecules in the filtrate than the active transport mechanism is able to handle, therefore, resulting in glucose being excreted in the urine. Elevated glucose in the urine is commonly seen in diabetes mellitus.
27. Countercurrent Mechanism – this mechanism ensures that the medullary interstitial fluid becomes hypertonic and occurs in the loop of Henle.
28. Urea – is a by product of amino acid catabolism in the liver. Urea enters the renal tubule by filtration and is reabsorbed by passive transport in the renal tubule and is secreted in the loop of Henle. About 80% of urea is effectively recycled and this provides much of the osmotic concentration of the medullary interstitial fluid. As a result, urea contributes to the reabsorption of water from the collecting duct.
29. Uric Acid – is a water-soluble, nitrogenous end product of metabolism of certain nucleic acid bases (adenine and guanine).
30. Ureter – a tubular organ which begins as the funnel-shaped renal pelvis. It extends downward to join the urinary bladder. The ureter wall is composed of three layers: the inner layer or mucous coat; the middle layer or muscular coat; and the outer layer or the fibrous coat. Urine is moved through the ureter by peristaltic waves.
31. Urinary Bladder – is a hollow, distensible, muscular organ located within the pelvic cavity and behind the symphysis pubis. It functions to store urine and will ultimately force the urine down into the urethra.
The wall of the bladder is composed of four layers and they are: the inner layer or mucous coat; the second layer is the submucous coat; the third layer is the muscular coat which includes the detrusor muscle; and the fourth layer which is the outer serous coat and is found only on the upper surface of the bladder, elsewhere it is covered by a fibrous connective tissue.

32. Detrusor Muscle –A portion of this muscle surrounds the neck of the bladder forming an internal urethral sphincter. The detrusor muscle contracts when urinating to force out urine, otherwise, it remains relaxed to allow the bladder to fill. It is innervated with parasympathetic nerve fibers that function in the reflex that passes urine.
33. Urethra – is the tube which conveys urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. In the female the urethra empties between the labia minora.
In the male, the urethra has dual functions has an urinary canal and as a passageway for secretions from the reproductive organs. The male urethra can be into three sections and they are:
Prostatic Urethra – first of the urethra that passes from the bladder. Ducts from the reproductive structures join the urethra in this region.
Membranous Urethra - begins just distal to the prostate gland, passes through the urogenital diaphragm and is surrounded by the external urethral sphincter muscle.
Penile Urethra – passes through the corpus spongiosum of the penis where erectile tissue surrounds it. This portion of the urethra terminates with the external urethral orifice at the tip of the penis.
34. Micturition – urination reflex – it is the process of disposing of urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra to the outside of the body. In micturition the detrusor muscle contracts and the external urethral sphincter relaxes. In healthy individuals this process is under voluntary control.
Distension of the bladder stimulates stretch receptors in the urinary bladder wall. The micturition reflex center in the spinal cord sends parasympathetic motor impulses to the detrusor muscle. As the bladder fills, the inernal pressure increases forcing the inernal urethral sphincter to open. A second reflex relaxes the external urethral sphincter, unless you exert voluntary control over it. The nerve centers in the brainstem and cerebral cortex aid in the control of urination.

SC 1232 Study Guide Exam 3 Winter 2009

Review Provided by Lacey Burton

Chapter 8 Joints of the skeletal system

Joints or articulations are junctions between bones that bind parts of the skeletal system, they enable bone growth,allow the skeleton to change shape during childbirth, and allow the body to move in response to muscle contraction.

Joints are classified according to the type of tissue that binds the bones together.

There are three types of joints (1) fibrous,(2) cartilaginous, (3) synovial.

Fibrous joints are joints that have dense connective tissue, with many collagenous fibers holding them together, usually located between the bones in close contact.

There are three types of fibrous joints, (1) syndesmosis, (2) suture, (3) gomphosis.

A syndesmosis joint bounds bones together by a sheet or bundle of dense connective tissue, and is flexible so it can permit slight movement. (examples.. between radius and ulna)

A suture joint, is only located between flat bones of the skull , and bounds bone together by a thin layer of connective tissue, bones at suture joints are interlocked by bony processes after birth.

A gomphosis joint is a joint that is formed by the union of cone shaped bony processes and bony sockets, that are bound by thick collagenous fibers (example.. only found in the connection between the teeth and jawbone)

Cartilaginous joints are joints that connect bones together by a layer of hyaline or fibrocartilage.


There are two types of cartilaginous joints (1) synchondrosis, (2) symphysis.

Synchondrosis joints are temporary structures and occur where bones are connected by hyaline cartilage that disappears during growth. (example....epiphyseal plate)

Symphysis joints are located at the articular surfaces of the bones and are covered by hyaline cartilage and the bones are joined together by pads of fibrocartilage. (example... between the vertebrae and pubis bones).

Synovial Joints are more complex than fibrous or cartilaginous joints they consist of articular cartilage, a joint capsule and a synovial membrane.

Articular cartilage is a thin layer of hyaline cartilage covering the ends of bones, and functions to resist wear and minimize friction when compression occurs as the joint moves.

A joint capsule holds bones together of a synovial joints with an outer layer of dense connective tissue , and an inner layer of loose connective tissue, and has a viscous fluid within the cavity of the joint.

Ligaments function to reinforce a joint capsule and help bind bind the articular ends of bones.

The synovial membrane is the inner layer of a joint capsule and covers all surfaces within the joint capsule except for what the articular cartilage cavers as well as surrounds the synovial cavity.


The synovial fluid is a viscous fluid that is secreted into the synovial cavity by the synovial membrane, that functions to moisten, lubricate , and provide nutrients to articular surfaces.

Menisci are discs of fibrocartilage that partially or completely divide synovial joints between articular surfaces they function to provide a rim like barrier to help hold bones in position, and cushion and distribute body weight in the knee joint.


Bursae are fluid filled sacs associated with synovial joints, that are located between skin & bony prominences, they function to cushion and aid in movement of tendons over body parts, bursae are named according to their locations.

There are 6 types of synovial joints,(1) ball and socket, (2) condylar, (3) plane or gliding, (4) hinge, (5) pivot or trochoid, (6) saddle or sellar.

There are 17 unique forms of movement associated with the joints.

Flexion is parts bending at a joint so that the distance between them decreases, and the parts come closer together.

Extension is the straightening of parts at a joint so that the distance between them increases and the parts move farther apart.

Hyperextension occurs when parts are extended at a joint beyond the anatomical position, usually referred to when abnormal extension occurs beyond normal range of motion.

Dorsilflexion is when movement at the ankle, moves the foot closer to the skin.

Plantar flexion is when movement at the ankle, moves foot away from the shin.

Abduction is the movement of parts away from the midline or away from the axial line of a limb.

Adduction is the movement of parts closer to the midline or toward the axial line of a limb.

Rotation is the movement of a part around and axis medial rotation occurs when movement is toward the midline of anterior surface, and lateral rotation occurs when movement is away from the midline of the anterior surface.

Circumduction is the end of a part moving in a circular path.

Supination is the turning of the hand so that the palm is facing anteriorly.

Pronation is the turning of the hand so the palm surface is facing posteriorly.

Eversion is the movement of the foot so the plantar surface faces laterally.

Inversion is the movement of the foot so the plantar surface faces medially.

Protraction is the movement of a part in a forward direction.

Retraction is the movement of a part in a backward direction.

Elevation is raising of a part

Depression is lowering of a part.

The shoulder joint is a Ball-and-socket joint where the rounded head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula are held together by dense connective tissue.

The shoulder joint is enclosed by a cylindrical joint capsule, that is very loose and does not bind the articular surfaces together, allowing for a wide range of motion.

The cylindrical joint capsule of the shoulder joint is reinforced by muscles and ligaments.

Ligaments of the shoulder joint help prevent displacement of the shoulder joint.

A coracohumeral ligament is band of connective tissue, that connects the scapula and the humerus and strengthens the superior portion of the joint capsule.

Glenohumeral ligaments are three bands of fibers that extend from the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the anatomical neck of the humerus.

Transverse humeral ligament is a narrow sheet of connective tissue that is between the tubercles of the humerus and forms a canal that long head of the biceps brachii passes.

There are several bursae within the shoulder joint, including the subrascapular, subdeltoid, subracromial, and supracoracoid bursae.

The elbow joint has 2 articulations, a hinge joint between the humerus and radius, and a plane joint between the humerus and ulna, with a joint capsule that completely encloses both.

The ulnar collateral ligament is a thick band of dense connective tissue, that attaches anteriorly to the medial epicondyle of the humerus and coracoid process of the ulna, and posteriorly to the medial condyle of the humerus and olecrannon process of the ulna.

The radial collateral ligament is a fibrous band that runs between the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and the anular ligament of the radius, and strengthens the lateral walls of the joint capsule.

The ulnar collateral ligament encircles the head of the radius and attaches to the trochlear notch of ulna, and keep the head of the radius in contact with the notch of the ulna.

The hip joint is a ball-and-socket joint where the head of the femur and the acetabulum join where a ring of fibrocartilage deepens the cavity of the acetabulum(menisci) and the articular surfaces are bound together by a large joint capsule and ligaments which allows for a wide variety of movements.'

Illiofemoral ligament is the strongest ligament in the body and is a Y- shaped band that connect the anterior inferior illiac spine to an area between the greater and lesser trochanters of the femur.

The pubofemoral ligament is a ligament whose fibers blend together with the joint capsules and runs between the superior pubis and illiofemoral ligament.

The Ischiofemoral ligament is a band of strong fibers that extends from the ischium and blends with the fibers of the joint capsule.

The hip joint is one of the most frequently replaced joints.

The Knee joint is the largest of the synovial joints and it has 2 condylar joints, which join the femur and tibia and the femur and patella , it has several bursae and two menisci that separate the articular surfaces of the femur and tibia.

The patellar joint is an extension of a tendon from a muscle group in the thigh that extends form the patella to the tibial tuberosity.

The oblique popliteal ligament is a ligament the connects the lateral condyle of the femur to the head of the tibia.

The arcuate popliteal ligament is composed of y-shaped fibers that extend from the lateral condyle to the head of the fibula.

The tibial collateral ligament is a wide flat bands of tissue that connects the medial condyle of the femur to the medial condyle of the tibia.

The fibular collateral ligament is a strong cordlike ligament located between the lateral condyle of the femur and the Head of the fibula.

The cruciate ligaments are 2 ligaments that cross each other between the tibia and femur in the knee joint, they are named according to their positions and help tho prevent displacement of articulating surfaces.

Menisci in the knee joint separate the articulating surfaces of the femur and tibia and help align them.

Join stiffness is the earliest sign of aging
Changes in collagen causes stiffness in joints

Fibrous joints change and strengthen throughout life

synovial joints lose elasticity over time.





Chapter 9 muscular system

There are three types of muscles 1. skeletal,(striated) 2. Smooth,(non-striated) 3. Cardiac, (striated).

A skeletal muscle is an organ of the muscular system.

The structure of the skeletal muscle is composed of many tissues and layers of connective tissue, the surface of the muscle is covered by fascia, the epimysium lies beneath the fascia and the perimysium extends from the epimysium, and functions to separate the muscle tissue into smaller sections containing bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles, each muscular fiber within the fascicles are surrounded by a thin layer of tissue called the endomysium, these separating layers contain many blood vessels and nerves.

Fascia is a layer of connective tissue that separates individual skeletal muscles, these layers enclose the muscle and sometimes excessively enough beyond the ends of the muscle fibers they form tendons.

Tendons are composed from excess fascia extending beyond the muscle fibers and sometime entangle the fibers of the periosteum, and they attach muscle to bone only.

Aponueroses are fibrous sheets of connective tissue that have the ability to attach muscle to muscle or muscle to bone.

Each muscle fiber is a single muscle cell that are cylindrical in shape and contain numerous nuclei.

A muscle cell has a membrane(sarcolemma), cytoplasm(sarcoplasm), many nuclei, several mitochondria and myofibrils .

Myofibrils are thread like structures with in the sarcoplasm composed of two types of protein filaments thick myosin filaments, and thin actin filaments, the arrangement of these filaments form striations.

Sarcomeres are a unit of repeated patterns of striations, and are the functional units of muscle contractions.

striation patterns have 2 main part (1) I bands with attachment structures called Z lines, and (2) A bands where actin and myosin filaments overlap, forming the M line.

Titin is a protein that attaches myosin(thick) filaments to the Z lines.

cross bridges or head of myosin filaments bind with the actin filaments.

sarcoplasmic reticulum(comparable to the ER of a typical cell) are membranous channels that surround each myofibril.

Transverse tubules are a set of membranous channels that run from the muscle cell membrane(sarcolemma) throughout the cell to the muscle cell cytoplasm(sarcoplasm) between the cisternae.

The cisternae are enlarged portion of the sarcoplasmic reticulum that contains the transverse tubules.

The transverse tubules and cisternae form a triad near the area where actin and myosin overlap.

Muscle fiber contraction occurs from a sliding movement in the myofibrils of the actin and myosin filaments that overlap and shorten the sarcomeres.

Motor neurons are neurons of skeletal muscles, a process called an axon that conducts nerve impulses.

The synapse or the nueromuscular junction is where a muscle fiber communicates or meets with an axon of a motor neuron (not by contact).

neurotransmitters are chemicals released by neurons to communicate with the cells the neurons controls.

A motor end plate is an area of a muscle fiber membrane (sarcolemma) where it is folded and located within the nueromuscular junction or synapses.

A motor unit is composed of the motor neuron and the muscle fiber it controls.

The synaptic cleft is a small gap between the membrane of the neuron and membrane of the muscle fiber.

Acetycholine(ACh) is a nuerotransmitter(chemical) that motor neurons use to control skeletal muscle contraction, by crossing the synaptic cleft and binding to the receptors of the muscle fiber membrane allowing sodium ions into the muscle cell a stimulating a muscle impulse.

The sliding filament model is where the thick(myosin) filaments and thin (actin) filaments slide past each other and shorten the skeletal muscle cells.

ATPase is an enzyme that breaks down ATP to ADP+phosphate that provides energy for muscle contraction, which occurs by a process of cross bridge cycling.

Acetylcholesterase is an enzyme that decomposes acetycholine remaining in the synapse, preventing nerve impulses to stimulate nerve fibers.

Creatine Phosphate is a high energy phosphate bond that is used to replenish ATP stores in active muscle fibers when they are low due to their high energy demands.

Myoglobin loosely binds oxygen for temporary oxygen stores in muscle tissue, which lessens the need for continuous blood supply during contraction when muscle fibers compress blood vessels.

Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed to react to accumulated lactic acid resulting from anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration's during contractions to form glucose and restore ATP and creatine phosphate.

Threshold stimulus is a level of stimulation that is needed to generate a muscle contraction after a muscle fiber has been exposed to stimuli of increasing strength.

A twitch is a short contraction of a singe muscle fiber in response to muscle impulse.

The latent period is the time between the stimulus of a muscle fiber and the beginning of a contraction.

Summation occurs when a series of twitches begin to combine, because the fibers are unable to completely relax before stimulus arrives for the next contraction and the contraction becomes sustained.

A tetanic contraction occurs when a sustained contraction is unable to have even a partial relaxation.

Recruitment is an increase in the number of activated motor units, during periods of high intensities of stimulation.

Muscle tone is a result of some muscle fibers being in a continuous state of partial contraction at any given time.

Isotonic contractions are contractions that changes the length of a muscle, there are 2 types of isotonic contraction (1) cocentric contractions;shortening of a muscle, (2) eccentric contraction; elongating or lengthening of a muscle.

Isometric contractions are contractions that do not change the length of a muscle.

Smooth muscle fibers have filaments of myosin and actin but are not as well organized therefore they lack striations, they also have no transverse tubules, and the sarcoplasmic reticula are not as well developed.

There are 2 types of smooth muscles multiunit and visceral.

In Multiunit smooth muscle the muscle fibers are not well organized and they operate as separate units with no teaming or effect on neighboring muscle fibers.

Visceral smooth muscle is composed of sheets of spindle shaped cells held close together by gap junctions which lie close together, and although these cells also operate as single units, because of their close proximity when one fiber is stimulated it may create a domino effect by stimulating other fibers. This type of smooth muscle is the more common type of smooth muscle.

Peristalsis is the wavelike motions in organs caused by visceral smooth muscle.

Cardiac Muscle is only in the heart, it contract for longer periods than any other muscles, it's fibers contract as a whole unit(all or nothing) by stimulation communicated through intercalated discs holding cells together they transmit impulses rapidly and it is rhythmic. tetanic or sustained contractions do not occur in cardiac muscle.

The origin is the immovable end of a muscle attachment.

The insertion is the movable end of a muscle attachment

The prime mover or agonist is the muscle that is that is primarily responsible for producing a movement.

Synergist are muscles that contract and assist the prime mover.

Antagonist are muscles that resist a prime movers movement, resulting in movement in the opposite direction.

The pectoralis major is a large muscle in the chest area.

The deltoid is a triangular shaped muscle located in the shoulder region.

The extensor digitorum is a muscle that extend the finger or toes.

The biceps brachii is a muscles with two point s of origin in the arm

The sternocliedomastoid is a muscle that is attached to the clavicle, sternum, and mastoid process.

The external oblique is a muscle that is located lateral to the midline and runs in a slanting direction.

The epicranius is a facial muscle that covers a portion of the cranium and consists of 2 parts (1) frontals;which covers that frontal bone and, (2) occipitalis; which lies over the occipital bone with a tendon call that epicranial aponuerosis that connects them, contraction causes raising of eyebrows and wrinkles in forehead.

The orbicularis oculi is ring like muscle around the eye located in the maxillary and frontal bones, its functions to close e the eye and compress the tear glands for lubrication of the eye simultaneously(Facial)

The orbicularis oris is a ring like muscle around the mouth and functions to close or pucker the lips(facial)

The buccinator is a muscle that slants forward from the mandible to the angle of the mouth and functions to compress the cheeks inward aiding in holding food in the mouth when chewing and blowing air out of the mouth. (facial)

The zygomaticus major and minor are muscles that originate from the zygomatic arch in a downward angle to the angle at the corners of the mouth and functions to raise the corners of the mouth(facial)

The platysma is a sheetlike muscle that originates from the upper chest and over the neck to the lower border of the mandible and functions to draw the mouth down and assist in lowering the mandible. (facial)

The masseter is a thick flat muscle that originated from the lower border of the zygomatic arch to the lateral surface of the mandible and functions to elevate the mandible as well as control the rate at which the mandible falls open in response to gravity(mastication)

The temporalis is a fan shaped muscle tht originated from the temporal bone and under the zygomatic arch to the mandible and functions to elevate the jaw in addition to the masseter.(mastication).


The medial Ptergoid is a muscle tht runs downward from the sphenoid, palatine, and maxillary bones to the mandible and it functions to close and move the jaw side to side(mastication).

The lateral ptergoid is a muscle that originated from the sphenoid bone to the mandibular condyle, and functions to open the mouth and pull the mandible forward, as will as side to side.(mastication)

The sternocliedomastoid is a muscle that originates from the sternum and clavicle and runs to the mastoid process of the temporal bone and functions to pull the the head to one side, flex the neck, and assist in elevating the sternum for inhalation(head and vertebra).

The splenius capitus and semispinalus capitis are muscles tht originate from the lower cervical and upper thoracic vertebra to the occipital bone and function to rotate the head, bend the head to one side, and extend the neck(head and Vertebrae)

The quadratus luborum is a muscle that originates from the illiac crest to the upper lumbar vertebrae 7 12 rib and functions to assist in breathing and extending the lumbar area of the vertebral column. (Head and vertebrae)

The errector spinae are muscles that run longitudinally along the back and function to extend and rotate the head, as well as maintain the erect position of the vertebral column, and are divided into 3 sub groups (1) lateral, (2) intermediate, (3) medial. ( head and vertebrae)

The trapeziuz is large triangular muscles that originates from the occipital bone, thoracic and cervical vertebrae to the clavicle and scapula and functions to rotate, raise pull medially or downward on the scapula. (pectoral Girdle)

The rhomboid major is a muscle that originates from the upper thoracic vertebrae to the medial border of the scapula and it functions to retract, elevate, and rotate the scapula. ( pectoral girdle)

The elevator scapulae is a muscle that originates from the cervical vertebrae to the meal border of the scapula and functions to elevate the scapula. (pectoral girdle)

The serratus anterior is a muscle that originates from the outer surfaces of the upper ribs to the scapula and functions to pull the scapulae anteriorly and downward. (pectoral girdle)

The pectoralis minor is a muscle that originates from the sternal ends of the upper ribs to the scapula and functions to pull the scapula forward and downward, and raises the ribs. (pectoral girdle)


The muscles that move the arm connect the humerus to various areas of the pectoral girdle,ribs,and vertebral column, they are classified into four groups: (1) flexors; coracobrachail & pectoralis major, (2) abductors; supraspinalus & deltoid, (3) extensors; teres majors & latissimus dorsi, (4) rotators; subscapularis, infraspiatus,and tere minor.

The muscles that move the forearm connect muscles from the radius or ulna to the humerus or pectoral girdle, and are grouped according to their primary action (1) flexors; biceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialus, (2) extensor; triceps brachii,(3) rotators; supinator, pronator teres, pronator quadrus.

The muscles that move the hand including the wrist and fingers originate form the distal humerus, radius and ulna and are grouped in 2 groups (1) flexors on the anterior side of the forearm : flexor carpi radialus, flexor carpi ulnaris, palmaris longus, flexor digitorum profundus & flexor digitorum superficialis, and (2) the extensors on the posterior side of the forearm: Extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialus brevis, extensor carpi ulnaris, & extensor digitorum.


The linea alba is an attachment for some of the abdominal wall muscles, and is a band of tough connective tissue that runs from the sternum to the symphysis pubis.

The abdominal wall muscles function to increase pressure within the abdominal cavity , assist in exhalation, defecation, urination, vomiting and childbirth. these muscles include the external oblique, internal oblique, transverse abdominus, rectus abdominus.

The pelvic diaphragm ( deep) and the urogenital diaphragm(superficial) are muscular sheets that span the outlet of the pelvis.

The muscles of the pelvic diaphragm are the levator ani which functions to support the pelvic viscera & provide a sphincter like action in the anal canal and vagina, and the coccygeus which functions to assist the levator ani.

The muscles of the urogenital diaphragm are the superficial transverse perinei which functions to assist other muscles in supporting the pelvic viscera, the bulbospongiosis that functions to assist in emptying the urethra and assist in erection of the penis in a male, and constrict the vagina and assist in the erection of the clitoris in a female, the ischiocavernosus that functions to erect the penis and clitoris, and the sphincter urethrae that functions to open and close the urethra.

The muscles that move the thigh are attached to the femur and pelvic girdle and are divided into 2 groups the (1) anterior group;psaos major,and iliacus, and the (2) Posterior group; gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, piriformis, and the tensor fasciae latae.

Other muscles t the adduct the thigh and are also attached to the femur and pelvic girdle and they include the: pectineus, adductor brevis, adductor longus, adductor magnus, and the gracilis.

The muscles that move the leg connect the tibia or fibula to the femur or pelvic girdle and are separated into 2 groups (1) flexors;biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus, and artorius. (2) extensor;quadriceps femoris group.

The muscles that move the foot including the movement of the ankle and toes are attached to the femur, tibia and fibula to the bones of the foot and are grouped into 4 categories (1) dorsal flexors; tibialis anterior, fibularis tertius, extensor digitorum longus, & extensor hallicus longus,(2) invertors; tibialus posterior, (3) plantar flexors; gastrocnemius,soleus,plantaris & flexor digitorum longus, (4) evertor; fibularis longus, and they function to provide dorsilflexion, plantar flexion, inversion, or eversion.

As aging occurs, ATP supplies, myoglobin, and creatine phosphate begins to delcline as well as adipose tissue and connective tissue begin to replace some muscle tissue

SC 1332 Study Guide Exam 2 Winter 2009

Chapter 17 – Digestive System
Linda Blackburn

1. Digestion – is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into forms that cell membranes can absorb. Mechanical digestion breaks large pieces into smaller pieces without altering their chemical makeup. Examples of mechanical digestion would be chewing or the “squashing” movements of the intestines. Chemical digestion breaks food into simpler chemicals. Examples of chemical digestion would be the use of amylase which breaks starches into disaccharides or pepsin which begins the digestion of dietary protein.

2. Digestive System – carries out the process of digestion as well as ingestion, propulsion, absorption and defecation. It consists of the alimentary canal which extends from the mouth to the anus and includes several accessory organs also.

3. Alimentary Canal – is a muscular tube about eight meters long and includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anal canal. The accessory organs include the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. It consists of four distinct layers and these layers are:

4. Mucosa or Mucous Membrane – innermost layer of alimentary canal – composed of epithelium, connective tissue and smooth muscle. It functions to provide protection to the tissues underneath and carries on secretion and absorption.

5. Submucosa – contains considerable loose connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves and glands. It nourishes surrounding tissues and transports absorbed materials away.

6. Muscular Layer – provides the movements of the tube and its contents. It contains smooth muscle fibers arranged in circular and longitudinal groups. When the circular fibers contract the diameter of the tube decreases and when the longitudinal fibers contract the tube shortens.

7. Serosa or Serous Layer – outer covering of the tube and is composed of epithelium and connective tissue. It protects underlying tissues and secretes serous fluid that moistens and lubricates the tube’s outer surface to reduce friction among organs within the abdominal cavity.

8. Segmentation – contractions in the small intestine which move chyme in both directions, thus, allowing for greater mixing with the secretions of the intestine.


9. Peristalsis – contraction of the smooth muscles in the digestive tract creating a
“wavelike” motion propelling food along the tract. Peristaltic movement is initiated by circular smooth muscles contracting behind the chewed material to prevent it from moving back into the mouth, followed by a contraction of longitudinal smooth muscles which pushes the digested food forward.

10. Mouth – is the first portion of the alimentary canal. It receives the food and begins the mechanical part of digestion by breaking up the solid particles in to smaller pieces and mixing them with saliva. The mouth also functions as an organ of speech and sensory reception.

11. Cheeks – form the lateral walls of the mouth. They function to hold food in the mouth and contain muscles which help to chew the food.

12. Lips – are highly mobile structures that surround the mouth opening. They contain skeletal muscles and sensory receptors that aid in judging temperature and texture of foods.

13. Tongue – a thick muscular organ that occupies the floor of the mouth and will nearly fill the oral cavity when the mouth is closed. It functions to mix food with saliva, move food towards the pharynx and contains taste receptors.

14. Lingual Frenulum – a membranous fold which connects the midline of the tongue to the floor of the mouth.

15. Papillae – rough projections of the tongue which contain most of the taste buds and also provide friction to help handle food.

16. Lingual Tonsils – rounded masses of lymphatic tissue which cover the posterior region of the tongue.

17. Palate – forms the roof of the oral cavity and consists of a hard anterior part and a soft posterior part. The hard palate forms a partition between the nasal cavities and the mouth. The soft palate is soft tissue which consists of muscle fibers and is responsible for closing off the nasal passages and the airway during the act of swallowing.

18. Uvula – conelike projection which hangs down from the soft palate above the root of the tongue.

19. Palatine Tonsils – masses of lymphatic tissue which help to protect the body against infections and are located in the back of the mouth on either side of the tongue.

20. Pharyngeal Tonsils – masses of lymphatic tissue, sometimes called adenoids, and are located on the posterior wall of the pharynx above the border of the soft palate.

21. Teeth – are the hardest structures in the body and function to break food particles into smaller pieces and help mix food with saliva during chewing. There are generally 20 primary (deciduous) teeth and 32 secondary (permanent) teeth.

22. Salivary Glands – function to secrete saliva and are located throughout the mucosa of the tongue, palate and cheeks. The saliva that is secreted functions to moisten food particles helps to bind them and begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates.

23. Salivary Amylase – digestive enzyme produced by serous cells which begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates by splitting starch and glycogen into disaccharides.

24. Mucus – a thick liquid secreted by mucous cells that binds food particles and acts as a lubricant during swallowing.

25. Parotid Glands – largest of the major salivary glands. They are located anterior to and somewhat inferior to the ears between the skin of the cheeks and the masseter muscles. It secretes a clear, watery serous fluid which is rich in salivary amylase through Stenson’s duct into the oral cavity.

26. Submandibular Glands – can be found in the floor of the mouth on the inside surface of the mandible. It secretes some serous fluid with some mucus and is more viscous than the parotid gland secretion. It secretes this through Wharton’s ducts which open inferior to the tongue.

27. Sublingual Glands – smallest of the major salivary glands – These are found in the floor of the mouth inferior to the tongue. They secrete primarily thick, stringy mucus through Wharton’s ducts which open inferior to the tongue.

28. Pharynx – functions in swallowing and connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and the esophagus and can be divided into three parts:

29. Nasopharynx – located superior to the soft palate. It communicates with the nasal cavity and provides a passageway for air during breathing.

30. Oropharynx – located posterior to the mouth. This portion is a passageway for food moving downward from the mouth and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity.

31. Laryngopharynx – located just inferior to the oropharynx; lower portion of the pharynx near opening of larynx.
32. Bolus – mixture of masticated food, more or less ball-shaped, moving through the digestive tract.

33. Esophagus – is a straight, collapsible tube which provides a passageway for food and propels it from the pharynx to the stomach using its muscular walls. It is about 25 centimeters long and connects the mouth to the stomach.

34. Lower Esophageal Sphincter – is the junction orifice of the stomach and the esophagus. This one-way valve is called the esophageal sphincter (ES), and prevents gastric juice from flowing back into the esophagus.

35. Stomach – is a J-shaped, pouchlike organ, about 25-30 centimeters long, which hangs inferior to the diaphragm in the upper left abdominal quadrant. The stomach receives food from the esophagus, mixes it with gastric juices, initiates the digestion of proteins, carries on limited absorption and moves food into the small intestine. It is composed of two layers of smooth muscle – an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer – although some parts of the stomach also have another inner layer of oblique fibers which strengthen the stomach wall and help with mixing and churning.

36. Pyloric Sphincter - is a strong ring of smooth muscle at the end of the pyloric canal and lets food pass from the stomach to the duodenum.

37. Gastric Glands – these generally contain three types of cells: mucous cells, chief (peptic) cells and parietal (oxyntic) cells.
Mucous Cells – found in necks of the glands near the openings of the gastric pits and secrete mucous.
Chief Cells or Peptic Cells – reside in deeper parts of the glands and secrete pepsinogen
Parietal or Oxyntic Cells – also reside in deeper parts of the glands and they secrete hydrochloric acid and the intrinsic factor.

38. Pepsin – digestive enzyme found in the gastric juices. It is a protein-splitting enzyme that digests nearly all types of dietary protein. It is formed from pepsinogen in the presence of hydrochloric acid. Pepsin can also break down pepsinogen to release more pepsin.

39. Pepsinogen – is an inactive, nonerosive enzyme secreted by the chief cells and when it comes in contact with hydrochloric acid it forms pepsin.

40. Intrinsic Factor – is secreted by the parietal cells of the gastric glands. It is required for vitamin B12 absorption from the small intestine.



41. Gastrin – a peptide hormone released by certain stomach cells, mainly in the pyloric region, in response to parasympathetic impulses. It stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl) by the parietal cells of the stomach and aids in gastric motility. Gastrin release is controlled by a negative feedback system in the stomach; where its secretion rises in response to a higher pH and as the pH drops the release of gastrin is inhibited.

42. Cholecystokinin or CCK – peptide hormone is released from the intestinal wall and secreted in the duodenum in response to fat or protein-rich chyme entering the intestine. It decreases gastric motility and stimulates the digestion of this fat and protein. CCK also causes the the increased production of hepatic bile, stimulates the contraction of thegall bladder and the relaxation of the Sphincter of Oddi resulting in the delivery of bile into the duodenal part of the small intestine. Its release is inhibited by somatostatin.

43. Chyme – semi fluid mass of partially digested food that is released from the stomach into the duodenum.

44. Enterogastric Reflex – a reflex which begins in the small intestine and ends in the stomach. This reflex results in fewer parasympathetic impulses arriving at the stomach, inhibiting peristalsis and intestinal filling slows. If the chyme entering the intestine is fatty, CCK will be released which will further inhibit peristalsis. This reflex is basically making sure that the duodenum does not overfill.

45. Pancreas – produces digestive enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase and pancreatic amylase) and alkaline pancreatic juices and secretes them into the small intestine through a system of exocrine ducts in response to the small intestine hormones CCK and secretin.

46. Pancreatic Amylase – carbohydrate digesting enzyme; splits molecules of starch or glycogen into disaccharides.

47. Pancreatic Lipase – fat digesting enzyme; breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and monoglycerides.

48. Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Carboxypeptidase – protein splitting enzymes. These enzymes are secreted in inactive forms and must be activated by other enzymes after they reach the small intestine. Trypsinogen, released by pancreatic cells, is activated to trypsin when it contacts the enzyme enterokinase in the small intestine. Chymotrypsin and Carboxypeptidase are activated, in turn, by the trypsin. This mechanism prevents enzymatic digestion of proteins within the secreting cells and also the pancreatic ducts.

49. Nucleases – enzymes that break down nucleic acid molecules into nucleotides (DNA and RNA)

50. Secretin – peptide hormone released from the small intestine which stimulates the pancreas to secrete a large quantity of fluid (pancreatic juice) when acidic chyme enters the duodenum.

51. Liver – largest internal organ and is located in the right upper abdominal quadrant. It is a highly vascular organ enclosed in a fibrous capsule and divided into lobes. It is responsible for metabolizing carbohydrates, lipids and proteins; stores some substances; filters blood; destroys toxins; and secretes bile. Bile is the only liver secretion that directly affects digestion.

52. Hepatic Lobules – functional units of the liver – these are small divisions of the lobes of the liver on a histological scale.

53. Hepatic Sinusoids – vascular channel within the liver.

54. Kupffer Cells – removes most of the bacteria from the blood by phagocytosis. They provide immune surveillance in the liver. These are found fixed to the endothelial lining of the hepatic sinusoids.

55. Hepatic Ducts – are the product of smaller bile ductules within the liver converging. These ducts, in turn, converge to form the common hepatic duct.

56. Bile – is a yellowish-green liquid that hepatic cells continually secrete. It contains water, bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol and electrolytes. Bile salts are the most abundant and are the only bile substances that have a digestive function.

57. Gallbladder – is a pear shaped sac located in a depression on the inferior surface of the liver. It functions to store bile between meals, concentrates bile by reabsorbing water and contracts to release bile into the duodenum when stimulated by CCK from the small intestine.

58. Cystic Duct – is the short duct which joins the gall bladder to the common bile duct.

59. Common Bile Duct – formed by the union of the common hepatic and cystic ducts. The conduction of bile to the duodenum is the main function of this duct.

60. Emulsification - the breakdown of large fat globules into smaller, uniformly distributed particles. It is accomplished mainly by bile acids in the small intestine. This is the first step in the preparation of fat for chemical digestion by specific enzymes.

61. Small Intestine – a tubular organ that extends from the pyloric sphincter to the beginning of the large intestine. It consists of the duodenum, jejunum and the ileum. It receives secretions from the pancreas and liver; completes the digestion of the nutrients in chyme; absorbs the products of digestion; transports the remaining residues to the large intestine.

62. Duodenum – is the first section of the small intestine, it is also the shortest and most fixed. It is largely responsible for the breakdown of food in the small intestine through the use of enzymes (trypsin, lipase and amylase) and it also regulates the emptying of the stomach in response to hormonal stimulation (CCK and secretin). It also contains Brunner’s gland which are responsible for the release of mucous.

63. Jejunum – middle section of the small intestine – the diameter of the jejunum is usually greater and its wall is thicker, more vascular and more active than that of the ileum.

64. Ileum – final section of the small intestine. Its main function is to absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by the jejunum. The ileum also contains numerous Peyer’s patches, which are lymphoid nodules that contain large amounts of lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system. It also contains a higher bacterial population.

65. Mesentery - is the double layer of peritoneum that suspends the jejunum and ileum from the posterior wall of the abdomen.

66. Intestinal Villi – tiny projections of mucous membrane found on the inner wall of the small intestine throughout its entire length and additional extensions called microvilli. They increase the surface area of the small intestine, aiding absorption of digestive products.

67. Lacteal – a lymphatic capillary that absorbs dietary fats in the villi of the small intestine.

68. Intestinal Glands or Crypts of Lieberkuhn – gland found in the epithelial lining of the small intestine and secretes various enzymes.

69. Peptidases – protein splitting enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of polypeptides into amino acids.

70. Sucrase – digestive enzyme which catalyzes the breakdown of sucrose

71. Maltase – enzyme which catalyzes the breakdown of maltose into glucose.

72. Lactase - enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of lactose into glucose and galactose.

73. Intestinal Lipase – enzyme which catalyzes fats into fatty acids and glycerol

74. Ileocecal Sphincter – joins the small intestine’s ileum to the large intestine’s cecum.

75. Large Intestine – is made up of five parts; cecum, colon (ascending, transverse, descending), sigmoid colon, rectum and anus. It absorbs ingested water and electrolytes remaining in the alimentary canal; it reabsorbs and recycles water and remnants of digestive secretions; forms and stores feces; and houses intestinal flora. These intestinal floras break down some indigestible substances such as cellulose and synthesize vitamin K, B12, thiamine and riboflavin.

76. Cecum – connects the ileum of the small intestine with the ascending colon of the large intestine. It is considered to be the beginning of the large intestine.

77. Vermiform Appendix – narrow tube with a closed end connected to the cecum of the large intestine. It has no known digestive function but does contain lymphatic tissue.

78. Colon – is divided into four portions:
Ascending Colon – begins at the cecum, extends upward against the posterior abdominal wall, turns left sharply at the hepatic flexure and becomes the:
Transverse Colon –it is the longest and most moveable part of the large intestine. It is suspended by a fold of peritoneum and as it approaches the spleen, it turns abruptly downward as the splenic flexure and becomes the:
Descending Colon – passes downward along the left side of the abdominal cavity to the brim of the pelvis and it becomes the:
Sigmoid Colon – S shaped portion which then becomes the:

79. Rectum – terminal end of the digestive tube between the sigmoid colon and the anus.

80. Anal Canal – is the last part of the large intestine and at its distal end the canal opens to the outside as the anus. There are two muscles which guard the anus – the internal anal sphincter muscle (involuntary control) and the external anal sphincter muscle (voluntary control).

81. Feces – is composed of materials that were not digested or absorbed, along with water, electrolytes, mucus and bacteria. The color derives from bile pigments altered by bacterial action and the pungent odor is a result of a variety of compounds that the bacteria produce.

Chapter 18 – Nutrition and Metabolism

1. Nutrients – chemical substances supplied from the environment that an organism requires for survival.

2. Macronutrients – are substances that are needed in bulk such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats.

3. Micronutrients – substances that are essential in small daily doses such as vitamins and minerals.

4. Nutrition – is the taking in and metabolizing of nutrients so that life is maintained and growth can take place. There are six categories of nutrients that the body needs to acquire from food and they are: protein, carbohydrates, fat, fibers, vitamins and minerals, and water.

5. Metabolism - All the physical and chemical changes that occur in cells to allow growth and maintain body functions. These include processes that break down (catabolism) substances to yield energy and processes that build up (anabolism) other substances necessary for life.

6. Essential Nutrients – are nutrients that are required for normal body function that cannot be synthesized by the body at all or cannot be synthesized in amounts that are adequate for good health and must be obtained from a dietary source. Some examples of essential nutrients would be water, omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids, lysine and tryptophan, and vitamins D, C and B12.

7. Leptin – hormone secreted by adipocytes throughout the body suppresses the appetite and increases metabolic rate after eating. It operates in a negative feedback mechanism in which leptin is released in response to eating, which causes the leptin to act on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite and at the same time this increase in leptin causes fat catabolism in liver and skeletal muscle.

8. Ghrelin – hormone produced in the stomach which stimulates appetite; it is considered to be the counterpart to leptin.

9. Carbohydrates – organic compounds which include starches and sugars and the energy that is held in their chemical bonds is used to power cellular processes. They can be divided into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), and polysaccharides (starch, glycogen).

10. Cellulose – complex carbohydrate that is abundant in our food and we are unable to digest it, therefore, most of it passes through the alimentary canal unchanged, but it provides important bulk to the diet. This bulk helps move the food mass along, stimulates normal muscle action in the intestine and forms feces for elimination.
11. Lipids – organic compounds that include fats, oils, and fatlike substances such as phospholipids and cholesterol. They supply energy for cellular processes and help build structures such as cell membranes. The most common dietary lipids are the fats called triglycerides.

12. Beta Oxidation – process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate Acetyl CoA – which is the entry molecule for the Krebs cycle.

13. Fatty Acid Oxidases – enzyme located within the mitochondria which break down fatty acid molecules.

14. Ketone Bodies – compound produced as a by-product when fatty acids are broken down for energy in the liver and kidneys. There are three types of ketone bodies: acetone, acetoacetic acid, and beta-hydroxybutyric acid. These may later react to form Acetyl CoA once again and now the citric acid cycle can then oxidize the Acetyl CoA molecules to begin generating energy. They provide much of the energy to the brain and heart in periods of starvation.

15. Essential Fatty Acids – fatty acids required for health that the body cannot synthesize in adequate amounts and must be obtained from the diet. An example of an essential fatty acid would be linoleic acid, which is required to synthesize phospholipids, which are necessary for constructing cell membranes and myelin sheaths and for transporting circulating lipids.

16. Proteins – are composed of amino acids joined in unique chain sequences to form specific proteins and each amino acid is joined by a peptide bond. Food proteins provide the amino acids necessary for building and maintaining body tissue, act as enzymes and provide energy.

17. Deamination – removal of –NH2 (nitrogen containing) groups from amino acids usually by hydrolysis.

18. Urea – water soluble compound which is the major nitrogenous end product of protein metabolism produced in the liver from amino groups formed by deamination of amino acids.

19. Essential Amino Acids – amino acids that are required for health that body cells cannot synthesize in adequate amounts and must be obtained from the diet. There are eight amino acids required by the adult body and ten that are required for growing children. All essential amino acids must be present at the same time in order for growth and repair of tissues to take place.

20. Complete Proteins – contain adequate amounts of all the essential amino acids needed to maintain the tissues and promote growth. These proteins include milk, meats and eggs.

21. Incomplete Proteins – lack adequate amounts of one or more essential amino acids. An example of incomplete protein would be zein in corn; it has too little of the essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine, which, are unable by themselves to maintain human tissues or to support normal growth and development.

22. Dynamic Equilibrium – maintenance of balance between varying or shifting forces that is characteristic of processes within the body.

23. Nitrogen Balance – condition in which the amount of nitrogen taken in is equal to the amount of nitrogen excreted.

24. Calories – units of heat and is defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. The calorie used to measure food is 1,000 times greater and is expressed as a kilocalorie or large calorie. Therefore, the energy value of a food is expressed as the number of kilocalories a specified portion of the food will yield when oxidized in the body.

25. Basal Metabolic Rate – measures the rate at which the body expends energy under basal conditions – which is when a person is awake and at rest; after an overnight fast; and in a comfortable controlled environment.

26. Energy Balance – exists when caloric intake in the form of foods equals caloric output from the basal metabolic rate and muscular activities. In this state, the body weight remains constant.

27. Obesity – excess adipose tissue. A person that is more than 20% above the desired weight for their height is considered to be obese.

28. Vitamins - Any of various fat-soluble or water-soluble organic substances essential in minute amounts for normal growth and activity of the body and obtained naturally from plant and animal foods.

29. Provitamins – precursor of a vitamin that is converted to its active form through normal metabolic processes.
_____________________________________________________________________
Fat soluble vitamins are generally carried by lipids, are fairly resistant to the effects of heat, so cooking and food processing usually does not destroy them.

30. Vitamin A or Retinol – fat soluble vitamin which exists in many forms with the most usable or active form being retinol- this can then be made in to retinal or retinoic acid (other active forms of Vitamin A) in the body. It is mainly stored in the liver and is relatively stable to the effects of heat, acids and bases. But it is easily destroyed by oxidation or light.
Vitamin A performs the following functions in the body: it contributes to maintaining vision, namely because of the retinal which is part of the light-sensitive pigment rhodopsin which enables the eye to adjust to different amounts of available light; maintains healthy epithelial tissues (skin, inner mucous membranes in the GI tract, nose, throat, eyes) providing the primary barrier to infection; retinoic acid and retinol are both involved in skeletal and soft tissue growth through their roles in protein synthesis. The constant need to replace old cells in the bone matrix and GI tract also requires adequate vitamin A intake.
The precursor or provitamin to Vitamin A is carotenes and these can be found in dark green and yellow vegetables and fruits. Beta-carotene is most important to human nutrition because the body is able to convert it to vitamin A, thus making it a primary source of the vitamin. The only foods which are a direct source of Vitamin A are liver, fish, whole milk, butter and eggs.
Excess vitamin A can lead to nausea, headache, dizziness, hair loss and birth defects. Deficiency of this vitamin may lead to night blindness and degeneration of epithelial tissues.

31. Antioxidants – substance that inhibits oxidation. For example, beta carotene is considered an antioxidant because it is thought to protect the body from the damaging effects of oxidation, such as damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive compounds which can cause damage to cellular structures. For example, vitamin A is important as an antioxidant and in the production of immune cells responsible for fighting bacterial, parasitic and viral attacks.

32. Vitamin D or Cholecalciferol – fat soluble vitamin which is naturally present in very few foods. It is also produced within the body when ultraviolet rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis. Vitamin D must undergo two hydroxylations in the body in order for it to become active. The first occurs in the liver and the second occurs in the kidneys where it forms the active form known as calcitriol.
Calcitriol acts with two other hormones, parathyroid hormone and calcitonin to control calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Calcitriol stimulates: intestinal cell absorption of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P); kidney reabsorption of Ca and P; and stimulates osteoclasts to remove Ca and P from bone. All of these actions increase blood calcium and phosphorus concentrations.
Yeast and fatty fish are really the only good natural sources of vitamin D. So, therefore, it is often added to food during processing. The most common food it is added to is milk but it is can also added to margarines, yogurt, breakfast cereals and orange juice. Most people, however, meet their vitamin D requirements through sun exposure.
Excess vitamin D can lead to diarrhea, calcification of soft tissues such as the kidneys, lungs, fragile bones. Deficiency will cause rickets – a condition that will lead to bone weakening.

33. Vitamin E or Tocopherol – fat soluble vitamin which is a strong antioxidant. It functions to protect the polyunsaturated fats from damage from free radical oxidation. It may also help maintain the stability of cell membranes.
Vitamin E is found in all tissues but primarily is stored in the muscles and adipose tissue. It is also highly concentrated in the pituitary and adrenal glands. The richest sources of vitamin E are found in vegetable oils (wheat germ, soybean, and safflower oil), nuts, fortified cereals and avocado.
Excessive intake of vitamin E can lead to nausea, headache, fatigue, and easy bruising, bleeding and muscle weakness. Deficiencies of this vitamin are rare because it is so easily obtained.

34. Vitamin K – fat soluble vitamin that has two well-established functions in the body. First, it is necessary for the formation of several proteins needed for blood clotting including prothrombin in the liver. Second, it contributes to bone growth because the synthesis of osteocalcin requires vitamin K.
Green leafy vegetables, such as spinach, turnip greens and broccoli are the best dietary sources of vitamin K. Other good sources include egg yolk, pork liver, soy oil, tomatoes and cauliflower.
Deficiencies of this vitamin can lead to bleeding tendencies, hemorrhagic disease and poor bone growth. Toxicity from vitamin K has not been observed, however, excess amounts may interfere with anti-coagulation drugs.

________________________________________________________________________
Water soluble vitamins include the B vitamins and vitamin C. B vitamins are several compounds which often occur together in foods and are usually referred to as the vitamin B complex.

35. Vitamin B1 or Thiamine – water soluble vitamin that is part of a coenzyme called cocarboxylase that oxidizes carbohydrates. Thiamin is necessary for providing energy and carbohydrate metabolism in the gastrointestinal, nervous and cardiovascular system. In the GI system lack of thiamin causes poor appetite, indigestion, constipation as well as deficient gastric HCl acid secretion. The cells of smooth muscles and secretory glands must have energy to do their work and thiamine provides that energy. The CNS depends on glucose for energy and without sufficient thiamine, alertness and reflexes decrease and fatigue and irritability result; if the deficiency continues nerve irritation, pain and numbing sensations and paralysis may result. Finally, without constant energy, the heart weakens and eventually will fail; weakened veins are unable to move the blood back to the heart resulting in fluid accumulation in the lower leg as well.
Excess thiamine is uncommon but toxic effects may include vasodilatation, cardiac dysrhythmias, headache, weakness and convulsions. Deficient thiamine will result in beriberi, which causes GI disturbances, mental confusion, muscular weakness, and paralysis and heart enlargement.
Good dietary sources of thiamine include whole enriched grains, legumes, wheat germ, pork, beef and liver.

36. Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin – water soluble vitamin that is part of several enzymes and coenzymes known as flavoproteins. One coenzyme, FAD, is involved in both energy production (glucose oxidation) and tissue-protein building (cellular growth). Riboflavin is also an essential factor for glutathione peroxidase, an antioxidant enzyme.
Milk, meats, enriched cereals and green leafy vegetables are good sources of riboflavin.
Deficiencies of this vitamin produce dermatitis and blurred vision. To date, there have been no adverse effects from riboflavin intake from food or supplements have been reported.

37. Vitamin B3 or Niacin – water soluble vitamin that is converted to its physiologically active from called niacinamide once ingested. It functions as part of two coenzymes, called NAD and NADP which are essential in glucose oxidation. These are necessary for glycolysis, citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain to function optimally. Niacin is required for the synthesis of sugars that are part of the nucleic acids also.
Excess niacin may lead to flushing, vasodilation, wheezing, headache, and liver problems. Deficiencies include pellagra which produces dermatitis, inflammation of the digestive tract, diarrhea and mental disorders.
Most niacin in diets comes from meat, fish, poultry or enriched grain products. Other good sources include legumes such as peanuts, dried beans and peas.

38. Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid – water soluble vitamin that functions as part of the molecule Coenzyme A. This enzyme then reacts with other products of carbohydrate and fat metabolism to become Acetyl Coenzyme A – that is a necessary part of the citric acid cycle. Therefore, vitamin B5 is vital in the process of cellular energy release.
Deficiency of this vitamin is rare but may manifest as loss of appetite, mental depression or muscle spasms. There are no known conditions associated with excess amounts of vitamin B5.
The best sources of vitamin B5 are meats, whole-grain cereals, legumes, milk, fruits and vegetables.

39. Vitamin B6 – water soluble vitamin composed of three compounds that are chemically similar. Vitamin B6 plays an essential role in protein metabolism and in many cell reactions involving amino acids. It participates in amino acid absorption, energy production, synthesis of heme from hemoglobin and niacin formation from tryptophan. It is also involved in neurotransmitter synthesis involving the brain and CNS activity.
Excess of this vitamin can lead to burning pains, numbness, clumsiness, diminished reflexes and paralysis. Deficiency of this vitamin is rare due to its widespread availability in foods.
Good sources of vitamin B6 are liver, meats, bananas, avocados, beans, peanuts, whole-grain cereals and egg yolk.

40. Vitamin B12 or Cyanocobalamin – water soluble vitamin that is vital for the functions of all cells. It is part of the coenzymes required for the synthesis of nucleic acids and is a coenzyme in the synthesis of heme for hemoglobin. Vitamin B12 is involved in the metabolism of fats and carbohydrates as well. Finally, it is essential for neural myelin sheath synthesis. The secretion of intrinsic factor in the parietal cells of the gastric glands regulates absorption of vitamin B12.
Deficiency of vitamin B12 can result in pernicious anemia and poor nerve function.
The best sources will be found in liver, lean meats, fish and seafood, milk, cheese and eggs.



41. Folacin or Folic Acid – water soluble vitamin that is absorbed in the digestive tract, stored in the liver where it is converted to the active substance folinic acid.
It functions as a coenzyme that is necessary for the metabolism of amino acids and for the synthesis of DNA. It also acts with vitamin B12 in the production of normal red blood cells.
Deficiencies of folic acid can cause megaloblastic anemia, of which pregnant women are especially susceptible. In recent years, it has been established that a pregnant woman should increase their folic acid intake to help prevent neural tube defects (spina bifida and anencephaly) in their unborn infant.
Folic acid is widely distributed in foods and its best sources include green, leafy vegetables, orange juice, dried beans and liver.

42. Biotin – water soluble vitamin that acts as a coenzyme that is required for the metabolism of amino acids, fatty acids and nucleic acids. It also plays a role in the citric acid cycle by synthesizing glucose during fasting (from glycerol) and/or during short bursts of energy (from lactic acid).
Deficiencies of this vitamin are rare as are any toxic effects from overuse or over-ingestion. However, deficiency may lead to anemia, fatigue, anorexia, dermatitis and elevated cholesterol.
Biotin is best obtained from liver, egg yolk, nuts, legumes and mushrooms.

43. Vitamin C or Ascorbic Acid – water soluble vitamin that is necessary for the production of the connective tissue protein collagen, acts as an antioxidant to protect the body from free radical damage, metabolism of certain amino acids and for the conversion of folacin to folinic acid. It also works to promote hemoglobin production, thereby, helping to prevent iron-deficiency anemia. Finally, it functions to synthesize certain hormones from cholesterol.
Prolonged deficiency of vitamin C can lead to scurvy that produces abnormal bone development and swollen, painful joints. It can also produce tissue bleeding (easy bruising), bone and joint bleeding, susceptibility to bone fracture; poor wound healing and bleeding gums with loosened teeth.
The best sources of this vitamin include citrus fruits, red bell peppers and kiwi. Other good sources include tomatoes, cabbage, berries, melons, broccoli, potatoes (white and sweet) and other green and yellow vegetables.


44. Minerals – are inorganic elements that are essential in human metabolism. These elements are usually extracted from the soil by plants and then we obtain them from plant foods or from animals that have eaten the plants. The major minerals of the body are:

45. Calcium – Ca – is essential for nerve impulse conduction, muscle fiber contraction, blood coagulation (essential for the formation of fibrin) and bone and tooth formation. Calcium is also necessary for many metabolic functions in the body including intestinal absorption of vitamin B12; activation of fat-splitting enzyme pancreatic lipase; secretion of insulin by the beta cells of the pancreas; and it also interacts with cell membrane proteins that allow cell membrane permeability to nutrients.
Deficiency of calcium in childhood, can lead to stunted growth, misshapen bones and enlarged wrists and ankles. In adulthood, calcium deficiency can lead to thinning bones and raising the risks of fractures and osteoporosis. Too little calcium can also lead to tetany (involuntary contraction of muscles) due to the inability to close the sodium channels during nerve cell conduction. Toxic levels of calcium are rare but can manifest as calcium phosphate deposits in soft tissues or as kidney stones.
The riches sources of calcium include milk, milk products and fish with bones (salmon or sardines). Other good sources include leafy, green vegetables, fortified orange juice, cereals and legumes.

46. Phosphorus – P - is essential to bone and tooth formation, energy metabolism and maintaining an acid-base balance of body fluids. It is a part of nucleic acids, many proteins, some enzymes and vitamins also. It can also be found in the phospholipids of cell membranes and in the energy carrying molecule ATP. It is also involved in protein construction (as a component of RNA), cell function and genetic inheritance (as a component of DNA.
Deficiency, though unlikely due to its abundance in food, can result in bone loss, loss of appetite and weakness.
The best sources of phosphorus include meats, cheese, nuts, whole-grain cereals, milk and legumes.

47. Potassium – K – is widely distributed throughout the body and helps to maintain intracellular osmotic pressure and pH, regulation of nerve impulse and muscle contraction and regulate blood pressure.
Deficiency of potassium can result in irregular heartbeat, difficulty breathing, muscle weakness and swelling. Though toxicity is uncommon because of the uptake by body cells and the excretion of potassium through urine, cardiac arrest can occur if potassium reaches high levels.
Fresh fruits, vegetables, meats and whole grains are the best sources of potassium.

48. Sulfur – S – is also widely distributed throughout body tissues it is most abundant in the skin, hair and nails. Sulfur is an essential part of cell protein and collagen structure and high energy sulfur bonds that make energy metabolism conditions more favorable. It is also a component of thiamin and biotin that act as coenzymes in cell metabolism.
Deficiency and toxicity are unlikely with sulfur.
Sulfur is obtained from meats, eggs, cheeses, milk, nuts and legumes.

49. Chlorine – Cl – is found throughout the body and is most concentrated in the cerebrospinal fluid and in gastric juice. Working in conjunction with sodium, chlorine helps to regulate pH and maintain electrolyte balance and the solute concentration of extracellular fluids. It is essential for the formation of hydrochloric acid that is secreted in gastric juices; it also aids in the transport of carbon dioxide out of red blood cells.
The primary reasons for chlorine deficiency are excessive losses through vomiting, diarrhea, kidney disorders, sweating or the use of diuretics. This can lead to muscle cramps.
It can be found mainly in table salt and most processed foods.
50. Magnesium – Mg – is most abundant in bones. It is necessary as a cofactor in ATP-forming reactions in the mitochondria as well as breaking down ATP into ADP; ultimately helping to provide energy for cellular processes. It is also involved in conduction of nerve impulses that stimulate muscle contraction. Finally, it is involved in the secretion of thyroxine (thyroid hormone) aiding the body in maintaining a normal metabolic rate and helping it to adapt to cold temperatures.
Deficiency symptoms of magnesium are muscle weakness and cramps, hypertension and blood vessel constriction in the brain. Toxic levels are indicated excessive diarrhea, nausea and vomiting.
Whole grains, nuts, legumes, green vegetables, seafood and cocoa are the best food sources of magnesium.

________________________________________________________________________



Trace elements (microminerals) are essential minerals found in minute amounts with the body and they are:

51. Iron – Fe – is most abundant in the blood and is stored in the liver, spleen and bone marrow. It serves as the functional part of hemoglobin and myoglobin. It catalyzes formation of vitamin A from beta-carotene and is incorporated into a number of enzymes that help to regulate the body’s metabolism.
The major indication of an iron deficiency is anemia, pale skin and an impaired immune function. Excess amounts of iron will cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and liver, heart and CNS damage.
Iron will be best found in liver. Other good sources include meats, egg yolk, whole grains, enriched bread and cereal, dark green vegetables, legumes and nuts.

52. Manganese – Mn – is most concentrated in the liver, kidneys and pancreas. It is necessary for the normal growth and development of skeletal structures and connective tissue. It functions as a component of cell enzymes catalyzing many important metabolic reactions. These include activating reactions in urea synthesis and synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. It also contributes to the normal functions of the nervous system.
Excess manganese can lead to diarrhea while a deficiency can lead to neuromuscular disorders.
Cereals, whole grains, soybeans, legumes, nuts, tea, fruits and vegetables are the best sources of manganese.

53. Copper – Cu – is essential for hemoglobin synthesis, bone development, melanin production and formation of myelin within the nervous system. It is found in all body tissues but more highly concentrated in the liver, heart and brain.
Deficient amounts of copper can lead to anemia and bone abnormalities; toxic levels can result in liver and nerve conduction damage.
Copper is best found in liver, seafood, whole grains, legumes and nuts.

54. Iodine – I - is found in minute quantities in all tissues but is most concentrated in the thyroid gland. It’s only known function is the synthesis of T4, which regulates cell oxidation and basal metabolic rate.
Deficiencies of iodine may lead to a goiter, cretinism, hypo or hyperthyroidism. Excess amounts may also lead to a goiter.
Iodized salt and seafood are the best sources of iodine.

55. Cobalt – Co – is found throughout the body because it is an essential part of vitamin B12. It is necessary for the synthesis of several enzymes.
Excess amounts may lead to heart disease while deficiencies may result in pernicious anemia.
Liver, lean meats and milk are all good sources of cobalt.

56. Zinc – Zn – is essential as a part of enzymes that are involved in protein metabolism, storage of insulin, digestive, respiration and bone and liver metabolism. It is also a vital part of the immune system and is necessary for wound healing and maintaining the integrity of the skin.
Deficient amounts of zinc will result in impaired wound healing, slowed physical and mental development and lost of taste and smell. Toxic amounts of zinc symptoms appear as decreased immune function, impaired copper absorption, nausea and vomiting and slurred speech.
Meats, cereals, legumes, nuts and vegetables are all good sources of zinc.

57. Fluorine – F – strengthens tooth enamel and prevents dental caries. It will be best found in fluoridated water and toothpaste.

58. Selenium – Se – is a constituent of certain enzymes and participates in heart function, protects lipids in cell membrane from oxidative damage and it may spare vitamin E from free radical damage. It is also a component of the enzyme that converts thyroid hormone to T3.
Deficient amounts of selenium may lead to impaired immune function, heart muscle failure and Keshan disease (congestive cardiomyopathy). Toxic amounts will lead to GI upset and brittle hair and nails.
Seafood, kidney, liver, meats and whole grains are the best sources of selenium.

59. Chromium – Cr – helps to regulate glucose metabolism and essential use of carbohydrates.
Deficient amounts may result in impaired glucose metabolism.
Whole grains and cereal products provide the best source of chromium.


60. Food Pyramids – device that helps consumers to make healthy food choices. It organizes foods according to suggested proportions of diet often using serving sizes as guides. The pyramid symbolizes an individual approach to healthy eating and physical exercise. The website www.mypyramid.gov provides a place for a person to enter personal information and tailor a personal diet plan.
61. Malnutrition – poor nutrition that results from a lack of essential nutrients or a failure to utilize essential nutrients properly. Factors leading to malnutrition vary from lack of availability or poor quality of food; overeating or taking too many vitamin supplements. Malnutrition from diet alone is called primary nutrition. Secondary malnutrition is due to an individual characteristic that makes a normal diet inadequate. Prolonged and severe emotional stress may also lead to secondary malnutrition since stress can change hormonal concentrations.

62. Marasmus – severe lack of nutrients – it is a case of severe protein and/or caloric malnutrition. It usually occurs in the first year of life with growth retardation and wasting of adipose tissue. They will appear emaciated and resemble “living skeletons”. Children afflicted with marasmus often die of measles or other infections because their immune systems become too weak to fight off normally mild viral illnesses.

63. Kwashiorkor - a type of malnutrition caused by deficiency in the quality and quantity of protein in the diet and characterized by anemia, thinning hair, loss of teeth, edema and potbelly. It typically appears in children who have just been weaned from the breast and their diet now consists of protein-poor gruel. Infection can overwhelm the body as the immune system becomes robbed of its protective antibodies. Generally, the disease can be treated by adding food energy and protein to the diet; however, it can have a long-term impact on a child's physical and mental development, and in severe cases may lead to death.

64. Ascites – is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the abdomen. It can be an indicator of significant medical problems and is most commonly seen in cirrhosis and severe liver disease.

65. Anorexia Nervosa – is considered to be self-imposed starvation eating disorder. A person, usually adolescent females, who suffers from anorexia perceives herself to be overweight and will barely eat enough to survive. Those who have anorexia have a ritualized eating behavior and will develop low blood pressure; slowed or irregular heartbeat; constipation; constant chilliness; menstruating stops as body fat level plunges; hair becomes brittle; and the skin dries out.
The physical symptoms of anorexia can be treated with intravenous fluids and food so that the person does not starve to death or die of heart failure due to a mineral imbalance. However, treatment for anorexia nervosa must address three main areas: 1) Restoring the person to a healthy weight; 2) Treating the psychological disorders related to the illness; 3) Reducing or eliminating behaviors or thoughts that originally led to the disordered eating. Family based treatment has also shown to be effective for adolescents suffering from anorexia.
Anorexia can be a short-term experience or a lifelong obesession. It is thought to have the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder with anywhere from 6-20% of people diagnosed dying from causes related to the disorder. The suicide rate among those affected with anorexia is considerably higher when compared with the general population.

66. Bulimia – is an eating disorder characterized by bingeing and purging. They will eat whatever they want but will then either induce vomiting, take laxatives, exercise vigorously or a combination of the three to lose the calories they just consumed.
Physical signs of bulimia include tooth decay from frequent vomiting;throat is raw and esophageal lining is ulcerated from the stomach acid forced upward from vomiting; calluses or scars on back of hands from the incisors due to repeated self-induced vomiting; dehydration; and constipation.
Treatment involves psychotherapy and nutritional therapy and can be a life-long struggle to battle.