MSCA-DII, Many Thanks!!!!

THANK YOU: I want to thank the MSCA-DII and Dr. Manfredi for inviting me to speak about Vitamin D research. It was wonderful to see all the familiar faces again. You made my experience wonderful. I particularly enjoyed the discussions we had during the lecture. Again, thank you.

LECTURE NOTES: For those of you who attended my lecture on Vitamin D, I will be happy to burn and mail you a copy of the lecture notes and embedded video. Just send me an email with your name and full postal address to andrew@drbonci.com and don't forget to let me know that you are requesting the notes on CD.

PROTHERA, INC: Many of you asked where I get my Vitamin D. I use a company called Prothera. You can find them on the web at www.protherainc.com. For more direct and personal assistance please contact Chris Johnson at (888)488-2488 ex. 105. Ask Chris about private labeling. After all, if you sell it ... it should have your name in it. By the way, the only way I benefit from your relationship with Prothera is that your opportunities are enhanced and Prothera remains a strong and viable company to continue to serve my needs.

NON-FRACTIONATED SUPPLEMENTS: For me the answer is simple. Standard Process. Call (800) 558-8740.

I hope to see you again in the future.

Andrew

SC 1232 Study Guide Exam 5 Winter 2009

Chapter 12: nervous system three.

Introduction.
1.Sensory receptors are sensitive to environmental changes and initiate impulses to the brain and spinal cord.

Receptors, sensations, and perception.
2.Each type of receptor is sensitive to a distinct type of stimulus.
3.Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in chemical concentration.
4.Pain receptors are sensitive to tissue damage.
5.Thermo receptors are sensitive to temperature changes.
6.Mechanoreceptors are sensitive to mechanical forces.
7.Photo receptors are sensitive to light.
8.When receptors are stimulated, changes occur in their membrane potentials.
9.Receptor potentials are transferred to nerve fibers, triggering action potentials.
10.Sensations are feelings resulting from sensory stimulation.
11.Perception is when a particular part of the sensory cortex interprets the sensory stimulation.
12.The cerebral cortex projects a sensation back to the region of simulation.

General senses.
13.Free ends of sensory nerve fibers are the receptors for the sensation of touching pressure.
14.Tactile corpuscles of the receptors for the sensations of light touch.
15.Lamellated corpuscles are the receptors for the sensations of heavy pressure and vibration.
16.Pain receptors provide protection, do not adapt rapidly, and can be stimulated by changes in temperature, mechanical force, and chemical concentration.
17.The only receptors and visceral that provide sensations are pain receptors.
18.Acute pain fibers are fast conducting, therefore it is reasonable to believe that acute pain fibers are myelinated.
19.Chronic pain fibers are slower conducting, therefore it is reasonable to believe that chronic pain fibers are unmyelinated.
20.Within the brain, pain impulses pass through the reticular formation before being conducted to the cerebral cortex.
21.Stretch receptors provide information about the condition of muscles and tendons.

Special senses.

22.All factor receptors are chemo receptors that chemicals dissolved in nasal secretions stimulate.
23.The olfactory nerve is cranial nerve number one.
24.All factor receptors function together with taste receptors and aid in food selection.
25.Sensory impulses from the olfactory tract go to interpreting centers in the limbic system of the brain.
26.Taste buds consists of receptor cells and supporting cells.
27.The four primary taste sensations are sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.
28.Sensory impulses from taste receptors travel on the fibers of the facial nerve, the glossopharyngeal nerve, and the vagus nerves.
29.The outer ear includes the Oracle, the external auditory meatus, and the tympanic membrane.
30.Auditory ossicles of the middle ear conducts sound waves from the tympanic membrane to the oval window of the inner ear.
31.The auditory ossicles the middle ear increase the force of sound waves.
32.Auditory tubes connect the middle ears to the throat and help maintain equal air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
33.The inner ear consists of a complex system of connected tubes and chambers-the osseous and membranous labyrinths.
34.The organ of Corti contains the hearing receptors that vibrations in the fluid of the inner ear stimulate.
35.The nerve fiber from the hearing receptors travel in the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve.
36.Static equilibrium maintains the stability of the head and body when they are motionless.
37.The organs of static equilibrium are located in the vestibule.
38.Dynamic equilibrium balance is the head and body when they are moved or rotated suddenly.
39.The organs of dynamic equilibrium are located in the semicircular canals.
40.The outer layer of the eye, called the sclera, is protective and it's transparent anterior portion, called the cornea, refractory entering the eye.
41.The middle layer of the eye, called the choroid coat, is vascular and contains pigments that help keep the inside of the eye dark.
42.The inner layer of the eye, called the retina, contains the visual receptor cells.
43.The lens is a transparent, elastic structure.
44.The ciliary muscles control the shape of the lens.
45.The iris is a muscular diaphragm that controls the amount of light entering the eye.
46.The pupil is the opening in the iris.
47.The visual receptors of the eye are called rods and cones.
48.Rods are responsible for colorless vision in relatively dim light.
49.Cones provide color vision.
50.Nerve fibers from the retina form the optic nerves.
51.Some fibers of the optic nerve cross over from side to side and a structure called the optic chiasma.

Chapter 13: endocrine system.

Hormone action.
52.Endocrine glands secrete hormones that affect target cells possessing specific receptors.
53.Steroid hormones are lipids that include complex rings of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
54.Nonsteroid hormones are amines, peptides, and proteins.
55.Steroid hormones enter target cells and combine with receptors to form complexes.
56.These hormone receptor complexes activate specific genes in the nucleus, which directs synthesis of specific proteins.
57.The degree of cellular responses proportional to the number of hormone receptor complexes formed.
58.Nonsteroidal hormones combined with receptors in the target cell membrane.
59.A hormone receptor complex stimulates the membrane proteins, such as adenylate cyclase, to induce the formation of second messenger molecules.
60.A second messenger, such as cAMP, activates protein kinases.
61.Protein kinases activate certain proteins substrate molecules, which in turn, change cellular processes.
62.The cellular response to a nonsteroidal hormone is amplified because the enzymes induced by a small number of hormone receptor complexes can catalyze formation of a large number of second messenger molecules.
63.Prostaglandins modulate hormones that regulate formation of cAMP.

Control of hormonal secretions.
64.Glands secrete hormones in response to releasing hormones the hypothalamus secretes.
65.Some endocrine glands secrete in response to nerve impulses.
66.Some glands secrete in response to changes in the plasma concentration of a substance.
67.In a negative feedback system, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of a substance it regulates.
68.When the concentration of the regulated substance reaches a certain concentration, it inhibits the gland.
69.As the gland secretes less hormone, the controlled substance also decreases.

Pituitary gland.
70.Releasing hormones from the hypothalamus control most pituitary secretions.
71.The anterior pituitary consists largely of epithelial cells, and it secretes GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, FSH and LH.
72.Growth hormone or GH stimulates body cells to grow and divide.
73.Prolactin or PRL promotes breast development and stimulates milk production.
74.Thyroid stimulating hormone or TSH control secretion of hormones from the thyroid gland the hypothalamus, by secreting thyrotropin releasing hormone, regulates TSH secretion.
75.Adrenocorticotropic hormone or ACTH controls the secretion of certain hormones from the adrenal cortex.
76.The hypothalamus, by secreting corticotropic releasing hormone, regulates ACTH secretion.
77.Follicle stimulating hormone or FSH and luteinizing hormone LH are gonadotropins that affect the reproductive organs.
78.Posterior lobe of the pituitary gland largely consists of neural glial cellsand nerve fibers that originate in the hypothalamus.
79.The two hormones are the posterior pituitary are produced in the hypothalamus.
80.Antidiuretic hormone or ADH causes the kidneys to excrete less water.
81.Oxytocin or OT can contract muscles and the uterine wall.
82.OT also contract certain cells associated with production and ejection of milk from the milk glands of the breasts.

Thyroid gland.
83.Thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones increase the rate of metabolism, enhance protein synthesis, and stimulate lipid breakdown.
84.Calcitonin lowers blood calcium and phosphate ion concentrations.

Parathyroid glands.
85.Parathyroid hormone or PTH increases blood calcium ion concentration and decreases blood phosphate ion concentration.
86.PTH stimulates resorption of bone tissue, causes kidneys to conserve calcium ions and excrete phosphate ions, and indirectly stimulates absorption of calcium ions from the intestines.

Adrenal glands.
87.The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.
88.These hormones produce effects similar to those of the sympathetic nervous system.
89.Aldosterone is an adrenal cortex hormone that causes the kidneys to conserve sodium ions and water into excrete potassium ions.
90.Cortisol inhibits protein synthesis, releases fatty acids, and stimulates glucose formation from non-carbohydrates.
91.A negative feedback mechanisms involving secretion of CRH from the hypothalamus and ACTH from the anterior pituitary gland controls the levels of cortisol.

Pancreas.
92.The endocrine portion of the pancreas, which is called the pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans, secretes glucagon, insulin and somatostatin.
93.Glucagon stimulates the liver to produce glucose, increasing concentrations of love glucose.
94.Glucagon also breaks down fat.
95.Insulin activates facilitated diffusion of glucose through cell membranes, stimulated storage, promote protein synthesis, and stimulates fat storage.
96.Facilitated diffusion of glucose into nerve cells does not depend on insulin.
97.Somatostatin inhibits insulin and glucagon release.

Thymus gland.
98.Thymus gland secretes thymosin, which affects the production of certain lymphocytes that, in turn, provide immunity.

Reproductive glands.
99.The ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone.
100.The testes secrete testosterone.

Stress and its effects.
The hypothalamus controls a general stress syndrome.

SC 1332 Study Guide Exam 5 Winter 2009

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY II

KATRINA MONTAVY

CHAPTER 23 - PREGNANCY, GROWTH, & DEVELOPMENT

Growth - an increase in size and an increase in cell numbers.

Development - includes growth and is the continuous process by which an individual changes from one life phase to

another.

Prenatal period - begins with the fertilization of an egg cell and ends at birth.

Postnatal period - begins at birth and ends with death.

Fertilization - union of an eggs cell and a sperm cell, which typically occurs in a uterine tube. Also called conception.

Pregnancy - the presence of a developing offspring in the uterus. It consists of three periods called trimesters, each

about three months long.

Cleavage - the period after conception in which cells are rapidly dividing into progressively smaller cells.

Morula - a cluster of about 16 cells forming a solid ball which travels through the uterine tube to the uterus.

Blastocyst - the stage after the morula in which the cell mass is hollowed and then implants in the endometrium.

Embryo proper - the body of the developing offspring formed from the inner cell mass from the blastocyst.

Implantation - the process of the blastocyst nestling into the uterine lining where the trophoblast begin to produce tiny,

fingerlike processes (microvilli) that grow into the endometrium.

Human chorionic gonadotropin - (hCG) a hormone secreted by the trophoblast which maintains the corpus luteum

during the early stages of pregnancy and keeps the immune system from rejecting the blastocyst. It also stimulates synthesis of other hormones from the developing placenta.

Placenta - a vascular structure, formed by the cells surrounding the embryo and cells of the endometrium, that attaches

the embryo to the uterine wall and exchanges nutrients, gases and wastes between the maternal blood and the embryo's blood.

Placental lactogen - a hormone secreted by the placenta that may stimulate breast development and prepare the

mammary glands to secrete milk, with the aid of placental estrogens and progesterone.

Embryonic stage - extends from the beginning of the second week through the eighth week of prenatal development.

During this time, the placenta forms, the main internal organs develop, and the major external body structures appear.

Embryonic disc - formed by the inner cell mass of the blastocyst that flattens against the uterine wall and is the primitive

tissue from which all organs form.

Primary germ layers - the three layers of the embryonic disc and are called the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

Gastrula - the embryonic stage when the three primary germ layers are formed and when the connecting stalk appears.

Chorion - the outermost membrane of the extraembryonic cavity formed by two layers of cells from the trophoblast.

Chorionic villi - highly branched projections that grow out from the trophoblast.

Lacunae - irregular spaces in the endometrium around and between the chorionic villi that are filled with maternal

blood.

Placental membrane - separates embryonic blood within the capillary of a chorionic villus from the maternal blood in a

lacuna and allows substances to be exchanged between the maternal blood and the embryo's blood.

Amnion - a membrane that develops around the embryo that begins to appear during the second week.

Amniotic fluid - fluid that fills the space between the amnion and the embryonic disc and provides a watery

environment in which the embryo can grow freely without being compressed by surrounding tissues and protects the embryo from being jarred by the movements of the woman's body, and maintains a stable temperature for the embryo.

Umbilical cord - formed from the connecting stalk that begins at the umbilicus of the embryo and inserts into the center

of the placenta. It contains three blood vessels that transport blood between the embryo and the placenta.

Yolk sac - forms during the second week, and is attached to the underside of the embryonic disc. It forms blood cells in

the early stages of development and gives rise to the cells that later become sex cells. It also produces stem cells of the bone marrow and forms the embryonic digestive tube.

Allantois - forms during the third week as a tube extending from the early yolk sac into the connecting stalk of the

embryo. It forms blood cells and gives rise to the umbilical arteries and vein.

Teratogens - factors that cause congenital malformations by affecting an embryo during its period of rapid growth and

development. Includes drugs, viruses, radiation, and even large amounts of otherwise healthful substances.

Fetal stage - begins at the end of the eighth week of prenatal development and lasts until birth. During this period,

growth is rapid and body proportions change considerably.

Fetus - prenatal human after eight weeks of development.

Ductus venosus - a blood vessel in the fetus that bypasses the liver to join the inferior vena cava.

Foramen ovale - an opening in the atrial septum that shunts blood directly from the right atrium into the left atrium.

Ductus arteriosus - most of the blood in the pulmonary trunk bypasses the lungs by entering this fetal vessel which

connects the pulmonary trunk to the descending portion of the aortic arch.

Parturition - the birth process.

Neonatal period - extends from birth to the end of the first four weeks.

Infancy - the period of continual development extending from the end of the first four weeks to one year. During this

time, the infant grows rapidly and may triple its birth weight. Teeth begin to erupt through the gums, muscular and nervous systems mature and the ability to communicate begins.

Childhood - begins at the end of the first year and ends at puberty. During this period, growth continues at a rapid rate.

Primary teeth appear, the secondary teeth replace them; development of voluntary muscular control; learning to walk, run, climb; bladder and bowel control; effective communication; maturing emotionally.

Adolescence - the period of development between puberty and adulthood. Appearance of secondary sex

characteristics, growth spurts, and functional reproductivity.

Adulthood - (maturity) extends from adolescence to old age.

Senescence - the process of growing old. A continuation of the degenerative changes that begin during adulthood.

Passive aging - a breakdown of structures and slowing of functions. The degeneration of elastin and collagen proteins of

connective tissues, causing skin to say and muscle to lose it firmness.

Free radicals - highly reactive chemicals that are by-products of normal metabolism and form by exposure to radiation

or toxic chemicals. May activate the cellular degradation associated with aging.

Active aging - entails new activities or the appearance of new substances, such as lipofuscin granules or autoimmunity.

Apoptosis - programmed cell death.

CHAPTER 24 - GENETICS AND GENOMICS

Genetics - the study of inheritance of characteristics, concerns the transfer of information from generation to

generation, which is termed heredity.

Genes - consist of sequences of nucleotides of the nucleic acid DNA that transmits information from generation to

generation.

Chromosomes - structures that are made up of genes.

Genome - the complete set of genetic instructions in a human and includes about 24,000 protein-encoding genes.

Somatic cells - non-sex cells that contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Diploid - a cell that contains two complete sets of chromosomes.

Haploid - sex cells that only contain one set of chromosomes.

Genomics - looking at the human body in terms of multiple, interacting genes.

Karyotypes - a chromosome chart used to display the 23 chromosome pairs in size order.

Autosomes - chromosome pairs 1 through 22 which do not carry genes that determine sex.

Sex chromosomes - the 23rd pair of chromosomes, the X and the Y, that include genes that determine sex.

Alleles - various forms of the same type of gene that differ in DNA sequence.

Homozygous - a person having two identical alleles for the same gene.

Heterozygous - a person having two different alleles for a gene.

Genotype - the particular combination of alleles in a person's genome.

Phenotype - the way genes are expressed per individual, such as appearance or health condition.

Wild type - a phenotype that is most normal or common expression in a particular population and is indicated with a +

sign.

Mutant - an allele that produces an uncommon phenotype or disease-causing alleles.

Dominant - the allele that determines phenotype by masking the other allele for the same type of gene.

Recessive - the allele whose expression is masked by a dominant allele for the same type of gene.

Pedigree - a diagram that depicts family relationships and known genotypes and phenotypes.

Incomplete dominance - the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between that of either homozygote.

Codominant - different alleles that are both expressed in a heterozygote.

Completely penetrant - an allele that expresses phenotype 100% of the time.

Incompletely penetrant - an allele that is expressed only some of the time.

Variably expressive - the symptoms of a phenotype that vary in intensity in different people.

Pleiotrophy - a phenomenon where a single genetic disorder can produce several symptoms.

Genetic heterogeneity - the same phenotype may result from the actions of different genes.

Multifactorial traits - traits molded by one or more genes plus the environment.

Polygenic - traits determined by more than one gene.

Hemizygous - sex-linked traits

Sex-limited trait - affects a structure or function of the body that is present in only males or only females.

Sex-influenced inheritance - an allele is dominant in one sex but recessive in the other.

Polyploidy - a condition caused by an entire extra set of chromosomes resulting from the formation of a diploid, rather

than a normal haploid, gamete. This condition is rare in vertebrates and usually cease developing as embryos or fetuses.

Aneuploid - cells missing a chromosome or having an extra one.

Euploid - normal chromosome number.

Nondisjunction - a meiotic error resulting in an euploidy when a chromosome pair fails to separate, either at the first or

at the second meiotic division, producing a sperm or egg that has two copies of a particular chromosome or none, rather than the normal one copy.

Trisomy - having an extra chromosome.

Monosomy - missing one chromosome.

Amniocentesis - a prenatal test to determine karyotype of cell from the fetus. In this procedure, a needle is inserted

into the amniotic sac and about 5 milliliters of fluid is drawn.

Chorionic villus sampling - (CVS) a prenatal test to determine karyotype of cell from chorionic villus. In this procedure,

samples of chorionic villus cells are taken through the cervix. Due to possible mutations in a villus cell only or in a fetal cell only, a false positive or a false negative test result may occur.

Gene therapy - a group of techniques, still experimental, that alter, replace, silence, or augment a gene's function to

improve, delay, or prevent symptoms.

Heritable gene therapy - (germline gene therapy) introduces the genetic change into a sperm, egg, or fertilized egg,

which corrects each cell of the resulting individual. This therapy is not, and may never be, done in humans.

Nonheritable gene therapy - (somatic gene therapy) targets only affected cells and therefore cannot be transmitted to

the next generation.

SC 1232 Study Guide Exam 4 Winter 2010

Chapter 10: nervous system 1.

General functions of the nervous system.
1.The nervous system is composed of neural tissue, including neurons and neuroglial cells, blood vessels and connective tissue.
2.Organs of the nervous system are divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems.
3.Sensory receptors detect changes in internal and external body conditions.
4.The integrative functions bring sensory information together and make decisions that motor functions act upon.
5.Motor impulses stimulate effectors to respond.
6.The motor portion of the peripheral nervous system involved in voluntary activities is the somatic nervous system.
7.The motor portion of the peripheral nervous system involved in involuntary activities is the autonomic nervous system.
8.A neuron in includes a cell body, cell processes and the organelles usually found in cells.
9.Dendrites and the cell body provide receptive surfaces.
10.A single axon or rises from the cell body and maybe enclosed in a myelin sheath and a neurilemma.

Types of neurons.
1.Sensory neurons conducting nerve impulses from receptors in peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord.
2.Interneurons transmit nerve impulses between neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
3.Motor neurons conducting nerve impulses from the brain or spinal cord out to effectores-muscles or glands.

Types of neuronal glial cells
1.Astrocytes are star shaped cells between neurons in the blood vessels.
2.Astrocytes provide structural support, formation of scar tissue, transport substances between blood vessels and neurons, communicate with one another and with neurons, mop up excess ions in neurotransmitters, and induce synapse formation.
3.Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaves within the brain and spinal cord, and produce nerve growth factors.
4.Microglia provide structural support and phagocytosis or immune protection.
5.Ependyma form a porous layer through which substances diffuse between the interstitial fluid of the brain and spinal cord and the cerebral spinal fluid.
6.Schwann cells are cells with abundant, lipid rich membranes that wrap tightly around the axons of peripheral neurons.
7.Schwann cells increase the speed of neurotransmission.

The synapse.
1.A synapse is a junction between two nerve cells.
2.A synaptic cleft is the gap between parts of two cells in the synapse.
3.Synaptic transmission is the process by which the impulse in the presynaptic neuron signals the postsynaptic cell.
4.If a graded impulse from a dendrite or cell body triggers an action potential, it then travels along the axons to a synapse.
5.Axons have synaptic knobs at the distal ends that secrete neurotransmitters.
6.The neurotransmitter is released whenever impulse reaches the end of axons, and the neurotransmitter defuses across the synaptic cleft.
7.A neurotransmitter reaching a postsynaptic neuron or other cell may be excitatory or inhibitory.

Cell membrane potential.
1.A cell membrane is usually polarized as a result of an unequal distribution of ions on either side of a membrane.
2.Channels in membranes that allow passage of some ions but not others control ion distribution.

Distribution of ions.
1.A high concentration of sodium ions is on the outside of the membrane, and a high concentration of potassium ions is on the inside of the cell.
2.The difference in ion concentration across the cell membrane, and the resulting membrane potential, is maintained by sodium-potassium pumps.
3.The maintenance of normal resting potential of a nerve cell requires ATP to drive the sodium-potassium pumps.

Resting potential.
1.Large numbers of negatively charged ions, which cannot diffuse through the cell membrane, are inside the nerve cell.
2.Interesting nerve cell, more positive ions leave the cell and enter it, so the inside of the cell membrane develops a negative charge with respect to the outside.

Local potential changes.
1.Stimulation of in membrane affects its resting potential in the local region.
2.The nerve cell membrane is depolarized if it becomes less negative.
3.The nerve cell membrane is hyperpolarized if it becomes more negative.
4.Reaching threshold potential triggers an action potential.

Action potentials.
1.At threshold, sodium channels open and sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
2.Slightly later, potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the cell membrane.
3.The rapid change in cell membrane potential is called an action potential.
4.Many action potentials can occur before active transport reestablishes the original resting potential.
5.The propagation of action potentials along a nerve fiber is called an impulse.

All or none response.
1.A nerve impulses and all or none response.
2.If a stimulus of threshold intensity is not applied to an axon, and action potential is not generated.

Refractory period.
1.The refractory period is a brief time following passage of the nerve impulse when the membrane is unresponsive to an ordinary stimulus.
2.During the absolute refractory period, the membrane cannot be stimulated.
3.During the relative refractory period, the membrane can be stimulated with a higher intensity stimulus.

Impulse conduction.
1.An unmyelinated axon conducts impulses that travel over its entire surface.
2.A myelinated axon conducts impulses that travel from node to node.
3.Impulse conduction is more rapid on myelinated axons with large diameters.
4.In a nerve impulse traveling along a myelinated axon, action potentials occur only at the nodes.
5.Action potentials in myelinated axons appears to jump from node to node and is thus referred to as saltatory conduction.

Events leading to nerve impulse conduction.
1.Nerve cell membrane maintains resting potential by diffusion of sodium and potassium ions down there concentration gradients as the cell pumps them up the gradients.
2.Neurons receive stimulation, causing local potentials, which may sum to reach threshold.
3.Sodium channels in the local region of the membrane open.
4.Sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
5.Potassium channels in the membrane open.
6.Potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the membrane.
7.The resulting action potential causes an electric current that stimulates an adjacent portions of the membrane.
8.Action potentials occur sequentially along the length of the axon as a nerve impulse.

Chapter 11: nervous system 2

Introduction.
1.Bone and protected membranes called meninges surround the brain and spinal cord.

Meninges.
1.The meninges consists of a dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.
2.Cerebral spinal fluid occupies the space between the arachnoid and pia maters.

Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid.
1.Ventricles are connected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem.
2.Cerebrospinal fluid fills the ventricles.
3.Choroid plexuses in the walls of the ventricles secrete cerebrospinal fluid.
4.Ependymal cells of the choroid plexus regulate the composition of cerebral spinal fluid.
5.Cerebrospinal fluid circulates through the ventricles and is reabsorbed into the blood of the dural sinuses.

Spinal cord.
1.The spinal cord is a nerve column that extends from the brain into the vertebral canal.
2.The spinal cord terminates at the level between the first and second lumbar vertebrae.
3.The spinal cord is the center for spinal reflexes.
4.Reflexes are autonomic, subconscious responses to changes.
5.Spinal reflexes help maintain homeostasis.
6.The knee-jerk reflex employs only two neurons.
7.Withdrawal reflexes are protective actions.
8.The spinal cord provides a two-way communication system between the brain and structures outside the nervous system.
9.Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to the brain.
10.Descending tracts carry motor impulses to muscles and glands.
11.Many of the fibers in the ascending and descending tracts cross over in the spinal cord or brain.

Brain.
1.The brain is the largest and most complex part of the nervous system.
2.The brain contains nerve centers that are associated with sensations.
3.The brain issues motor commands and carries on higher mental functions.

Brain development.
1.The brain develops from a neural tube with three cavities-the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Structure of the cerebrum.
1.The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
2.The cerebral surfaces marked by ridges and grooves.
3.Sulci divide each brain hemisphere into lobes.
4.The cerebral cortex is a thin layer of gray matter near the surface.
5.White matter consists of myelinated nerve fibers that interconnect neurons with the nervous system and communicate with other body parts.

Functions of the cerebral.
1.The cerebrum is concerned with higher brain functions, such as thought, reasoning, interpretation of sensory impulses, control involuntary muscles, and memory storage.

Basal nuclei.
1.Basal nuclei are masses of gray matter located deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
2.The neurons of the basal nuclei interact with other brain areas to facilitate voluntary movement.

Diencephalon.
1.The diencephalon contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
2.The thalamus selects incoming sensory impulses and relays them to the cerebral cortex.
3.The hypothalamus is important in maintaining homeostasis.

Brainstem.
1.The brainstem extends from the base of the brain to the spinal cord.
2.The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
3.The reticular formation filters incoming sensory impulses, arousing the cerebral cortex into wakefulness in response to meaningful impulses.
4.Normal sleep results from decreasing activity of the reticular formation, and paradoxical sleep occurs when activating impulses are received from some parts of the brain, but not by others.

Cerebellum.
1.The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres connected by the vermis.
2.The cerebellum functions primarily as a reflex center, coordinating skeletal muscle movements and maintaining equilibrium.

Peripheral nervous system.
1.The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord to all body parts.
2.The peripheral nervous system can be subdivided into somatic and autonomic portions.

Structure of peripheral nerves.
1.A nerve consists of a bundle of nerve fibers surrounded by connective tissues.

Nerve and nerve fiber classification.
1.Nerves are cord like bundles of nerve fibers.
2.Nerves can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or mixed nerves, depending on which type of fibers they contain.
3.Nerve fibers within the central nervous system can be subdivided into groups with general and special functions.

Cranial nerves.
1.12 pairs of cranial nerves connect the brain to parts in the head, neck, and trunk.

CN I is the olfactory nerve

CN II is the optic nerve

CN III is the occulomotor nerve

CN IV is the trochlear nerve

CN V is the trigeminal nerve and gives sensation over the face

CN VI is the abducens nerve

CN VII is the facial nerve which innervates the muscles of the face

CN VIII is the vestibulocochlear nerve

CN IX is the glossopharyngeal nerve

CN X is the vagus nerve

CN XI is the accessory nerve

CN XII is the hypoglossal nerve

Spinal nerves.
1.31 pairs of spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord.
2.Spinal nerves provide a two-way communication system between the spinal cord and the upper limbs, lower limbs, neck, and trunk.
3.Each spinal nerve emerges by a dorsal root in the ventral root.
4.A dorsal root contain sensory fibers and has a dorsal root ganglion.
5.A ventral root contains motor fibers.

Autonomic nervous system.
1.The autonomic nervous system functions without conscious effort.
2.The autonomic nervous system is concerned primarily with regulating visceral activities that maintain homeostasis.
3.Autonomic functions are reflexes control from centers in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord.
4.Autonomic nerve fibers are associated with ganglia where impulses are integrated before distribution to effectors.
5.The integrative function of the ganglia provides a degree of independence from the central nervous system.
6.The autonomic nervous system is divided into two divisions-sympathetic and parasympathetic.
7.The sympathetic division prepares the body for stressful and emergency conditions.
8.The parasympathetic division is most active under ordinary conditions.

10.Autonomic neurotransmitters.
11.Sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers secrete acetylcholine.
12.Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers secrete norepinephrine and are adrenergic.
13.Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers secrete acetylcholine and are cholinergic.
14.The different effects of the autonomic divisions are due to the different neurotransmitters the postganglionic fibers release.

Actions of autonomic neurotransmitters.
1.Neurotransmitters combine with receptors and alter cell membranes.
2.Acetylcholine acts very briefly.
3.Norepinephrine and epinephrine may have more prolonged effects.

Control of autonomic activity.
1.The central nervous system largely controls the autonomic nervous system.
2.The medulla oblongata uses autonomic fibers to regulate cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory activities.
3.The hypothalamus uses autonomic fibers in regulating visceral functions.
4.The limbic system and the cerebral cortex control emotional responses to the autonomic nervous system.

SC 1332 Study Guide Exam 4 Winter 2010

Chapter 21: water, electrolytes, and acid base balance.

Introduction.
1.The maintenance of water and electrolyte balance requires that the quantities of these substances entering the body equal the quantities leaving it.
2.Altering the water balance necessarily affects the electrolyte balance.

Distribution of body fluids.
1.The intracellular fluid compartment includes the fluids and electrolytes cell membranes enclose.
2.The extracellular fluid compartment includes all fluids and electrolytes outside cell membranes.
3.Extracellular fluids have high concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate ions.
4.Intracellular fluid contains relatively high concentrations of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions.
5.Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure regulate fluid movements.
6.Sodium ion concentrations are especially important in fluid movement regulation.

Water balance.
1.The thirst mechanism is the primary regulator of water intake.
2.Drinking and the resulting stomach distention inhibit the thirst mechanism.
3.Water is excreted in the urine, feces, and sweat.
4.Insensible water loss occurs through evaporation from the skin and lungs.
5.Urine production regulates water output,
6.the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of the nephrons regulate water output.
7.ADH from the hypothalamus and poster to a Terry gland stimulates water reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.
8.If excess water is taken in, the ADH mechanism is inhibited.

Electronic balance.
1.The most important electrolytes in the body fluids are those that released ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate.
2.Electrolytes are usually obtained in sufficient quantities in response to hunger and thirst mechanisms.
3.In the severe electrolyte deficiency, a person may experience a salt craving.
4.The greatest electrolyte loss occurs a result of kidney functions.
5.Regulation of sodium ion involves the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.
6.Calcitonin from the thyroid gland and parathyroid hormone for the parathyroid gland regulates calcium ion concentration.

Acid base balance.
1.Acids or electrolytes to release hydrogen ions.
2.Bases combine with hydrogen ions.
3.Aerobic respiration of glucose produces carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
4.Carbonic acid dissociates to release hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.
5.Anaerobic respiration of glucose produces lactic acid.
6.Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids release acidic ketone acidic.
7.Strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, ionize more completely.
8.Weak acids, such as carbonic acid, ionize less completely.
9.Buffer systems are composed of sets of two or more chemicals.
10.Buffers convert strong acids into weaker acids or strong bases into weaker bases.
11.Buffer systems minimize pH changes.
12.The respiratory center located in the brainstem helps regulate pH by controlling the rate and depth of breathing.
13.Increasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentrations stimulates chemo receptors associated with the respiratory center.
14.Nephron's secrete hydrogen ions to regulate pH.
15.Chemical buffer systems act rapidly.
16.Physiological buffers act more slowly.

Chapter 22: reproductive systems.

Functions of the male reproductive organs.
1.Seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells.
2.Interstitial cells also called Leydig cells produce and secrete male sex hormones.
3.Epididymis store sperm cells undergoing maturation and conveys sperm cells to ductus deferens.
4.Ductus deferens conveys sperm cells to ejaculatory duct.
5.Seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostaglandins that help neutralize the acidic components of semen.
6.Prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid that helps neutralize the acidic components of semen and enhances sperm cell motility.
7.Boulder urethral gland also called Cowper's glands secrete fluid that lubricates the end of the penis.
8.Scrotum encloses, protects and regulates temperature of testes.
9.The dartos muscle is the muscle responsible for wrinkling the scrotum.
10.The penis conveys urine and semen to the outside of the body.

Formation of sperm cells.
1.The epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules include sustentacular or Sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells.
2.The sustentacular cells support and nourish the spermatogenesis cells.
3.The spermatogenic cells give rise to spermatogonia.
4.The process of spermatogenesis produces sperm cells from spermatogonia.
5.Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes and sperm cells by one half.
6.Spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells from each primary spermatocyte.

Structure of a sperm cell.
1.The sperm head contains a nucleus with 23 chromosomes.
2.The sperm body contains many mitochondria.
3.The sperm tail propels the cell.

Hormonal control of male reproductive functions.
1.The male body remains reproductively immature until the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone or GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins.
2.FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.
3.LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce male sex hormones.
4.Inhibin prevents over secretion of FSH.
5.Male sex hormones are called androgens.
6.Testosterone is the most important androgens.
7.Testosterone stimulus the development of the male reproductive organs and causes the test is to descend.
8.Testosterone is responsible for the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics.
9.A negative feedback mechanism regulates testosterone concentration.
10.As the concentration of testosterone rises, the hypothalamus is inhibited, and the anterior pituitary secretion of gonadotropins is reduced.
11.As the concentration of testosterone falls, the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropins.

Organs of this female reproductive system.

Functions of the female reproductive organs.
1.The ovary produces oocytes and female sex hormones.
2.The urine tube conveys secondary oocytes towards the uterus.
3.The urine tube is the sight of fertilization and conducts the developing embryo to the uterus.
4.Uterus protects and sustains embryo during pregnancy.
5.The vagina conveys uterine secretions to outside of body and provides open channel for the offspring during birth process.
6.The labia majora encloses and protects other external reproductive organs.
7.The labia minora forms the margins of the vestibule and protects the openings of the vagina and urethra.
8.Vestibule is the space between the labia minora that contains a vaginal and urethral openings.
9.The vestibular glands, or Bartholin's glands,secrete fluid that moistens and lubricates the vestibule.

Ovary structure.
1.The ovaries are subdivided into a medulla and the cortex.
2.The medulla is composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
3.The cortex contains ovarian follicles and is covered by cuboidal epithelium.

Primordial follicles.
1.During prenatal development, groups of cells in the ovarian cortex form millions of primordial follicles.
2.Each primordial follicle contains a primary oocyte and a layer of flattened epithelial cells.
3.The primary oocyte begins to undergo meiosis, but the process soon halts and does not resume until puberty.
4.The number of oocyte steadily declines throughout the life of a female.

Oogenesis.
1.Beginning at puberty, some oocytes are stimulated to continue meiosis.
2.When a primary oversight undergoes oogenesis, it gives rise to a secondary oocyte in which the original chromosome number is reduced by one half.
3.A secondary oocyte may be fertilized to produce a zygote.

Follicle maturation.
1.At puberty, FSH initiates follicle maturation.
2.During maturation, the primary oocyte enlarges, the follicular cells proliferate, and a fluid filled cavity appears and produces a secondary follicle.
3.Ovarian cells surrounding the follicles form to layers.
4.Immature follicle contains a secondary oocyte surrounded by a zona pellucida and a corona radiata.

Ovulation.
5.Ovulation is the release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary.
6.The secondary oocyte is released when it's follicle ruptures.
1.After ovulation, the secondary oocyte is drawn into the opening of the uterine tube.

Hormonal control of female reproductive functions.
1.A female body remains reproductively immature and till about 10 years of age when gonadotropin secretion increases.
2.The most important female sex hormones are estrogens and progesterone.
3.Estrogens are responsible for the development and maintenance of most female secondary sex characteristics.
4.Progesterone causes changes in the uterus.

Female reproductive cycle.
1.The reproductive cycle is characterized by regularly recurring changes in the uterine lining culminating in menstrual flow.
2.A reproductive cycle is initiated by FSH, which stimulates maturation of the follicle.
3.Granulosa cells of a maturing follicles secrete estrogens, which are responsible for maintaining the secondary sex traits and thickening the uterine lining.
4.Population is triggered when the answer to a Terry gland releases a relatively large amount of LH.
5.Following ovulation, the follicular cells and thecal cells give rise to the corpus luteum.
6.The corpus luteum secretes estrogens and progesterone, which cause the uterine lining to become more vascular and glandular.
7.If a secondary oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
8.As the concentrations of estrogens and progesterone to decline, the uterine lining disintegrates, causing menstrual flow.

Menopause.
1.Eventually the ovaries cease responding to FSH, and cycling ceases.
2.Menopause is characterized by a low concentration of estrogens and a continuous secretion of FSH and LH.
3.The female reproductive organs undergo varying degrees of aggressive changes.

Please be prepared to label the following diagrams with an understanding of the function of each anatomical portion: