SC 1332 Study Guide Exam 4 Winter 2010

Chapter 21: water, electrolytes, and acid base balance.

Introduction.
1.The maintenance of water and electrolyte balance requires that the quantities of these substances entering the body equal the quantities leaving it.
2.Altering the water balance necessarily affects the electrolyte balance.

Distribution of body fluids.
1.The intracellular fluid compartment includes the fluids and electrolytes cell membranes enclose.
2.The extracellular fluid compartment includes all fluids and electrolytes outside cell membranes.
3.Extracellular fluids have high concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate ions.
4.Intracellular fluid contains relatively high concentrations of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions.
5.Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure regulate fluid movements.
6.Sodium ion concentrations are especially important in fluid movement regulation.

Water balance.
1.The thirst mechanism is the primary regulator of water intake.
2.Drinking and the resulting stomach distention inhibit the thirst mechanism.
3.Water is excreted in the urine, feces, and sweat.
4.Insensible water loss occurs through evaporation from the skin and lungs.
5.Urine production regulates water output,
6.the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of the nephrons regulate water output.
7.ADH from the hypothalamus and poster to a Terry gland stimulates water reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.
8.If excess water is taken in, the ADH mechanism is inhibited.

Electronic balance.
1.The most important electrolytes in the body fluids are those that released ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate.
2.Electrolytes are usually obtained in sufficient quantities in response to hunger and thirst mechanisms.
3.In the severe electrolyte deficiency, a person may experience a salt craving.
4.The greatest electrolyte loss occurs a result of kidney functions.
5.Regulation of sodium ion involves the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.
6.Calcitonin from the thyroid gland and parathyroid hormone for the parathyroid gland regulates calcium ion concentration.

Acid base balance.
1.Acids or electrolytes to release hydrogen ions.
2.Bases combine with hydrogen ions.
3.Aerobic respiration of glucose produces carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
4.Carbonic acid dissociates to release hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.
5.Anaerobic respiration of glucose produces lactic acid.
6.Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids release acidic ketone acidic.
7.Strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, ionize more completely.
8.Weak acids, such as carbonic acid, ionize less completely.
9.Buffer systems are composed of sets of two or more chemicals.
10.Buffers convert strong acids into weaker acids or strong bases into weaker bases.
11.Buffer systems minimize pH changes.
12.The respiratory center located in the brainstem helps regulate pH by controlling the rate and depth of breathing.
13.Increasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentrations stimulates chemo receptors associated with the respiratory center.
14.Nephron's secrete hydrogen ions to regulate pH.
15.Chemical buffer systems act rapidly.
16.Physiological buffers act more slowly.

Chapter 22: reproductive systems.

Functions of the male reproductive organs.
1.Seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells.
2.Interstitial cells also called Leydig cells produce and secrete male sex hormones.
3.Epididymis store sperm cells undergoing maturation and conveys sperm cells to ductus deferens.
4.Ductus deferens conveys sperm cells to ejaculatory duct.
5.Seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostaglandins that help neutralize the acidic components of semen.
6.Prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid that helps neutralize the acidic components of semen and enhances sperm cell motility.
7.Boulder urethral gland also called Cowper's glands secrete fluid that lubricates the end of the penis.
8.Scrotum encloses, protects and regulates temperature of testes.
9.The dartos muscle is the muscle responsible for wrinkling the scrotum.
10.The penis conveys urine and semen to the outside of the body.

Formation of sperm cells.
1.The epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules include sustentacular or Sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells.
2.The sustentacular cells support and nourish the spermatogenesis cells.
3.The spermatogenic cells give rise to spermatogonia.
4.The process of spermatogenesis produces sperm cells from spermatogonia.
5.Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes and sperm cells by one half.
6.Spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells from each primary spermatocyte.

Structure of a sperm cell.
1.The sperm head contains a nucleus with 23 chromosomes.
2.The sperm body contains many mitochondria.
3.The sperm tail propels the cell.

Hormonal control of male reproductive functions.
1.The male body remains reproductively immature until the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone or GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins.
2.FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.
3.LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce male sex hormones.
4.Inhibin prevents over secretion of FSH.
5.Male sex hormones are called androgens.
6.Testosterone is the most important androgens.
7.Testosterone stimulus the development of the male reproductive organs and causes the test is to descend.
8.Testosterone is responsible for the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics.
9.A negative feedback mechanism regulates testosterone concentration.
10.As the concentration of testosterone rises, the hypothalamus is inhibited, and the anterior pituitary secretion of gonadotropins is reduced.
11.As the concentration of testosterone falls, the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropins.

Organs of this female reproductive system.

Functions of the female reproductive organs.
1.The ovary produces oocytes and female sex hormones.
2.The urine tube conveys secondary oocytes towards the uterus.
3.The urine tube is the sight of fertilization and conducts the developing embryo to the uterus.
4.Uterus protects and sustains embryo during pregnancy.
5.The vagina conveys uterine secretions to outside of body and provides open channel for the offspring during birth process.
6.The labia majora encloses and protects other external reproductive organs.
7.The labia minora forms the margins of the vestibule and protects the openings of the vagina and urethra.
8.Vestibule is the space between the labia minora that contains a vaginal and urethral openings.
9.The vestibular glands, or Bartholin's glands,secrete fluid that moistens and lubricates the vestibule.

Ovary structure.
1.The ovaries are subdivided into a medulla and the cortex.
2.The medulla is composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
3.The cortex contains ovarian follicles and is covered by cuboidal epithelium.

Primordial follicles.
1.During prenatal development, groups of cells in the ovarian cortex form millions of primordial follicles.
2.Each primordial follicle contains a primary oocyte and a layer of flattened epithelial cells.
3.The primary oocyte begins to undergo meiosis, but the process soon halts and does not resume until puberty.
4.The number of oocyte steadily declines throughout the life of a female.

Oogenesis.
1.Beginning at puberty, some oocytes are stimulated to continue meiosis.
2.When a primary oversight undergoes oogenesis, it gives rise to a secondary oocyte in which the original chromosome number is reduced by one half.
3.A secondary oocyte may be fertilized to produce a zygote.

Follicle maturation.
1.At puberty, FSH initiates follicle maturation.
2.During maturation, the primary oocyte enlarges, the follicular cells proliferate, and a fluid filled cavity appears and produces a secondary follicle.
3.Ovarian cells surrounding the follicles form to layers.
4.Immature follicle contains a secondary oocyte surrounded by a zona pellucida and a corona radiata.

Ovulation.
5.Ovulation is the release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary.
6.The secondary oocyte is released when it's follicle ruptures.
1.After ovulation, the secondary oocyte is drawn into the opening of the uterine tube.

Hormonal control of female reproductive functions.
1.A female body remains reproductively immature and till about 10 years of age when gonadotropin secretion increases.
2.The most important female sex hormones are estrogens and progesterone.
3.Estrogens are responsible for the development and maintenance of most female secondary sex characteristics.
4.Progesterone causes changes in the uterus.

Female reproductive cycle.
1.The reproductive cycle is characterized by regularly recurring changes in the uterine lining culminating in menstrual flow.
2.A reproductive cycle is initiated by FSH, which stimulates maturation of the follicle.
3.Granulosa cells of a maturing follicles secrete estrogens, which are responsible for maintaining the secondary sex traits and thickening the uterine lining.
4.Population is triggered when the answer to a Terry gland releases a relatively large amount of LH.
5.Following ovulation, the follicular cells and thecal cells give rise to the corpus luteum.
6.The corpus luteum secretes estrogens and progesterone, which cause the uterine lining to become more vascular and glandular.
7.If a secondary oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
8.As the concentrations of estrogens and progesterone to decline, the uterine lining disintegrates, causing menstrual flow.

Menopause.
1.Eventually the ovaries cease responding to FSH, and cycling ceases.
2.Menopause is characterized by a low concentration of estrogens and a continuous secretion of FSH and LH.
3.The female reproductive organs undergo varying degrees of aggressive changes.

Please be prepared to label the following diagrams with an understanding of the function of each anatomical portion: