AnP II Study Guide for Exam 4

Chapter 21: water, electrolytes, and acid base balance.

Introduction.
1.The maintenance of water and electrolyte balance requires that the quantities of these substances entering the body equal the quantities leaving it.
2.Altering the water balance necessarily affects the electrolyte balance.

Distribution of body fluids.
1.The intracellular fluid compartment includes the fluids and electrolytes cell membranes enclose.
2.The extracellular fluid compartment includes all fluids and electrolytes outside cell membranes.
3.Extracellular fluids have high concentrations of sodium, chloride, calcium, and bicarbonate ions.
4.Intracellular fluid contains relatively high concentrations of potassium, magnesium, and phosphate ions.
5.Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure regulate fluid movements.
6.Sodium ion concentrations are especially important in fluid movement regulation.

Water balance.
1.The thirst mechanism is the primary regulator of water intake.
2.Drinking and the resulting stomach distention inhibit the thirst mechanism.
3.Water is excreted in the urine, feces, and sweat.
4.Insensible water loss occurs through evaporation from the skin and lungs.
5.Urine production regulates water output,
6.the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts of the nephrons regulate water output.
7.ADH from the hypothalamus and poster to a Terry gland stimulates water reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.
8.If excess water is taken in, the ADH mechanism is inhibited.

Electronic balance.
1.The most important electrolytes in the body fluids are those that released ions of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulfate, phosphate, and bicarbonate.
2.Electrolytes are usually obtained in sufficient quantities in response to hunger and thirst mechanisms.
3.In the severe electrolyte deficiency, a person may experience a salt craving.
4.The greatest electrolyte loss occurs a result of kidney functions.
5.Regulation of sodium ion involves the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal glands.
6.Calcitonin from the thyroid gland and parathyroid hormone for the parathyroid gland regulates calcium ion concentration.

Acid base balance.
1.Acids or electrolytes to release hydrogen ions.
2.Bases combine with hydrogen ions.
3.Aerobic respiration of glucose produces carbon dioxide, which reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
4.Carbonic acid dissociates to release hydrogen and bicarbonate ions.
5.Anaerobic respiration of glucose produces lactic acid.
6.Incomplete oxidation of fatty acids release acidic ketone acidic.
7.Strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid, ionize more completely.
8.Weak acids, such as carbonic acid, ionize less completely.
9.Buffer systems are composed of sets of two or more chemicals.
10.Buffers convert strong acids into weaker acids or strong bases into weaker bases.
11.Buffer systems minimize pH changes.
12.The respiratory center located in the brainstem helps regulate pH by controlling the rate and depth of breathing.
13.Increasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen ion concentrations stimulates chemo receptors associated with the respiratory center.
14.Nephron's secrete hydrogen ions to regulate pH.
15.Chemical buffer systems act rapidly.
16.Physiological buffers act more slowly.

1.Please be familiar with table 21.2 found on page 834
2.Please be prepared to label figure 21.7 on page 835
3.please be prepared to label figure 21.8 on page 836
4.please be prepared to label figure 21.12 on page 841



Chapter 22: reproductive systems.

Functions of the male reproductive organs.
1.Seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells.
2.Interstitial cells also called Leydig cells produce and secrete male sex hormones.
3.Epididymis store sperm cells undergoing maturation and conveys sperm cells to ductus deferens.
4.Ductus deferens conveys sperm cells to ejaculatory duct.
5.Seminal vesicles secrete an alkaline fluid containing nutrients and prostaglandins that help neutralize the acidic components of semen.
6.Prostate gland secretes an alkaline fluid that helps neutralize the acidic components of semen and enhances sperm cell motility.
7.Boulder urethral gland also called Cowper's glands secrete fluid that lubricates the end of the penis.
8.Scrotum encloses, protects and regulates temperature of testes.
9.The dartos muscle is the muscle responsible for wrinkling the scrotum.
10.The penis conveys urine and semen to the outside of the body.

Formation of sperm cells.
1.The epithelial lining of the seminiferous tubules include sustentacular or Sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells.
2.The sustentacular cells support and nourish the spermatogenesis cells.
3.The spermatogenic cells give rise to spermatogonia.
4.The process of spermatogenesis produces sperm cells from spermatogonia.
5.Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes and sperm cells by one half.
6.Spermatogenesis produces four sperm cells from each primary spermatocyte.

Structure of a sperm cell.
1.The sperm head contains a nucleus with 23 chromosomes.
2.The sperm body contains many mitochondria.
3.The sperm tail propels the cell.

Hormonal control of male reproductive functions.
1.The male body remains reproductively immature until the hypothalamus releases gonadotropin releasing hormone or GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins.
2.FSH stimulates spermatogenesis.
3.LH stimulates the interstitial cells to produce male sex hormones.
4.Inhibin prevents over secretion of FSH.
5.Male sex hormones are called androgens.
6.Testosterone is the most important androgens.
7.Testosterone stimulus the development of the male reproductive organs and causes the test is to descend.
8.Testosterone is responsible for the development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics.
9.A negative feedback mechanism regulates testosterone concentration.
10.As the concentration of testosterone rises, the hypothalamus is inhibited, and the anterior pituitary secretion of gonadotropins is reduced.
11.As the concentration of testosterone falls, the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary gland to secrete gonadotropins.

Organs of this female reproductive system.

Functions of the female reproductive organs.
1.The ovary produces oocytes and female sex hormones.
2.The urine tube conveys secondary oocytes towards the uterus.
3.The urine tube is the sight of fertilization and conducts the developing embryo to the uterus.
4.Uterus protects and sustains embryo during pregnancy.
5.The vagina conveys uterine secretions to outside of body and provides open channel for the offspring during birth process.
6.The labia majora encloses and protects other external reproductive organs.
7.The labia minora forms the margins of the vestibule and protects the openings of the vagina and urethra.
8.Vestibule is the space between the labia minora that contains a vaginal and urethral openings.
9.The vestibular glands, or Bartholin's glands,secrete fluid that moistens and lubricates the vestibule.

Ovary structure.
1.The ovaries are subdivided into a medulla and the cortex.
2.The medulla is composed of connective tissue, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves.
3.The cortex contains ovarian follicles and is covered by cuboidal epithelium.

Primordial follicles.
1.During prenatal development, groups of cells in the ovarian cortex form millions of primordial follicles.
2.Each primordial follicle contains a primary oocyte and a layer of flattened epithelial cells.
3.The primary oocyte begins to undergo meiosis, but the process soon halts and does not resume until puberty.
4.The number of oocyte steadily declines throughout the life of a female.

Oogenesis.
1.Beginning at puberty, some oocytes are stimulated to continue meiosis.
2.When a primary oversight undergoes oogenesis, it gives rise to a secondary oocyte in which the original chromosome number is reduced by one half.
3.A secondary oocyte may be fertilized to produce a zygote.

Follicle maturation.
1.At puberty, FSH initiates follicle maturation.
2.During maturation, the primary oocyte enlarges, the follicular cells proliferate, and a fluid filled cavity appears and produces a secondary follicle.
3.Ovarian cells surrounding the follicles form to layers.
4.Immature follicle contains a secondary oocyte surrounded by a zona pellucida and a corona radiata.

Ovulation.
5.Ovulation is the release of a secondary oocyte from an ovary.
6.The secondary oocyte is released when it's follicle ruptures.
1.After ovulation, the secondary oocyte is drawn into the opening of the uterine tube.

Hormonal control of female reproductive functions.
1.A female body remains reproductively immature and till about 10 years of age when gonadotropin secretion increases.
2.The most important female sex hormones are estrogens and progesterone.
3.Estrogens are responsible for the development and maintenance of most female secondary sex characteristics.
4.Progesterone causes changes in the uterus.

Female reproductive cycle.
1.The reproductive cycle is characterized by regularly recurring changes in the uterine lining culminating in menstrual flow.
2.A reproductive cycle is initiated by FSH, which stimulates maturation of the follicle.
3.Granulosa cells of a maturing follicles secrete estrogens, which are responsible for maintaining the secondary sex traits and thickening the uterine lining.
4.Population is triggered when the answer to a Terry gland releases a relatively large amount of LH.
5.Following ovulation, the follicular cells and thecal cells give rise to the corpus luteum.
6.The corpus luteum secretes estrogens and progesterone, which cause the uterine lining to become more vascular and glandular.
7.If a secondary oocyte is not fertilized, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate.
8.As the concentrations of estrogens and progesterone to decline, the uterine lining disintegrates, causing menstrual flow.

Menopause.
1.Eventually the ovaries cease responding to FSH, and cycling ceases.
2.Menopause is characterized by a low concentration of estrogens and a continuous secretion of FSH and LH.
3.The female reproductive organs undergo varying degrees of aggressive changes.

Please be prepared to label the following diagrams with an understanding of the function of each anatomical portion:

1.figure 22.1 entirely page 849
2.figure 22.3 a and B. page 851
3.figure 22.9 B. page 855
4.figure 22.14 B. page 859
5.figure 22.17 entirely page 864
6.figure 22.18 a page 866
7.figure 22.22 a page 869
8.figure 22.25 page 871
9.figure 22.26 page 872
10.figure 22.31 entirely page 876
11.figure 22.33 entirely page 81

tables from the textbook you should pay particular attention to:

1.table 22.1
2.table 22.2
3.table 22.3
4.table 22.4

AnP I Study Guide for Exam 4

Chapter 10: nervous system 1.

General functions of the nervous system.
1.The nervous system is composed of neural tissue, including neurons and neuroglial cells, blood vessels and connective tissue.
2.Organs of the nervous system are divided into the central and peripheral nervous systems.
3.Sensory receptors detect changes in internal and external body conditions.
4.The integrative functions bring sensory information together and make decisions that motor functions act upon.
5.Motor impulses stimulate effectors to respond.
6.The motor portion of the peripheral nervous system involved in voluntary activities is the somatic nervous system.
7.The motor portion of the peripheral nervous system involved in involuntary activities is the autonomic nervous system.
8.A neuron in includes a cell body, cell processes and the organelles usually found in cells.
9.Dendrites and the cell body provide receptive surfaces.
10.A single axon or rises from the cell body and maybe enclosed in a myelin sheath and a neurilemma.

Types of neurons.
1.Sensory neurons conducting nerve impulses from receptors in peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord.
2.Interneurons transmit nerve impulses between neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
3.Motor neurons conducting nerve impulses from the brain or spinal cord out to effectores-muscles or glands.

Types of neuronal glial cells
1.Astrocytes are star shaped cells between neurons in the blood vessels.
2.Astrocytes provide structural support, formation of scar tissue, transport substances between blood vessels and neurons, communicate with one another and with neurons, mop up excess ions in neurotransmitters, and induce synapse formation.
3.Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaves within the brain and spinal cord, and produce nerve growth factors.
4.Microglia provide structural support and phagocytosis or immune protection.
5.Ependyma form a porous layer through which substances diffuse between the interstitial fluid of the brain and spinal cord and the cerebral spinal fluid.
6.Schwann cells are cells with abundant, lipid rich membranes that wrap tightly around the axons of peripheral neurons.
7.Schwann cells increase the speed of neurotransmission.

The synapse.
1.A synapse is a junction between two nerve cells.
2.A synaptic cleft is the gap between parts of two cells in the synapse.
3.Synaptic transmission is the process by which the impulse in the presynaptic neuron signals the postsynaptic cell.
4.If a graded impulse from a dendrite or cell body triggers an action potential, it then travels along the axons to a synapse.
5.Axons have synaptic knobs at the distal ends that secrete neurotransmitters.
6.The neurotransmitter is released whenever impulse reaches the end of axons, and the neurotransmitter defuses across the synaptic cleft.
7.A neurotransmitter reaching a postsynaptic neuron or other cell may be excitatory or inhibitory.

Cell membrane potential.
1.A cell membrane is usually polarized as a result of an unequal distribution of ions on either side of a membrane.
2.Channels in membranes that allow passage of some ions but not others control ion distribution.

Distribution of ions.
1.A high concentration of sodium ions is on the outside of the membrane, and a high concentration of potassium ions is on the inside of the cell.
2.The difference in ion concentration across the cell membrane, and the resulting membrane potential, is maintained by sodium-potassium pumps.
3.The maintenance of normal resting potential of a nerve cell requires ATP to drive the sodium-potassium pumps.

Resting potential.
1.Large numbers of negatively charged ions, which cannot diffuse through the cell membrane, are inside the nerve cell.
2.Interesting nerve cell, more positive ions leave the cell and enter it, so the inside of the cell membrane develops a negative charge with respect to the outside.

Local potential changes.
1.Stimulation of in membrane affects its resting potential in the local region.
2.The nerve cell membrane is depolarized if it becomes less negative.
3.The nerve cell membrane is hyperpolarized if it becomes more negative.
4.Reaching threshold potential triggers an action potential.

Action potentials.
1.At threshold, sodium channels open and sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
2.Slightly later, potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the cell membrane.
3.The rapid change in cell membrane potential is called an action potential.
4.Many action potentials can occur before active transport reestablishes the original resting potential.
5.The propagation of action potentials along a nerve fiber is called an impulse.

All or none response.
1.A nerve impulses and all or none response.
2.If a stimulus of threshold intensity is not applied to an axon, and action potential is not generated.

Refractory period.
1.The refractory period is a brief time following passage of the nerve impulse when the membrane is unresponsive to an ordinary stimulus.
2.During the absolute refractory period, the membrane cannot be stimulated.
3.During the relative refractory period, the membrane can be stimulated with a higher intensity stimulus.

Impulse conduction.
1.An unmyelinated axon conducts impulses that travel over its entire surface.
2.A myelinated axon conducts impulses that travel from node to node.
3.Impulse conduction is more rapid on myelinated axons with large diameters.
4.In a nerve impulse traveling along a myelinated axon, action potentials occur only at the nodes.
5.Action potentials in myelinated axons appears to jump from node to node and is thus referred to as saltatory conduction.

Events leading to nerve impulse conduction.
1.Nerve cell membrane maintains resting potential by diffusion of sodium and potassium ions down there concentration gradients as the cell pumps them up the gradients.
2.Neurons receive stimulation, causing local potentials, which may sum to reach threshold.
3.Sodium channels in the local region of the membrane open.
4.Sodium ions diffuse inward, depolarizing the membrane.
5.Potassium channels in the membrane open.
6.Potassium ions diffuse outward, repolarizing the membrane.
7.The resulting action potential causes an electric current that stimulates an adjacent portions of the membrane.
8.Action potentials occur sequentially along the length of the axon as a nerve impulse.

Please be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
1.figure 10.2 b page 357
2.figure 10.3 page 359
3.figure 10.7 page 362
4.figure 10.8 page 365
5.figure 10.12 a page 368
6.figure 10.19 entirely page 374

Chapter 11: nervous system 2

Introduction.
1.Bone and protected membranes called meninges surround the brain and spinal cord.

Meninges.
1.The meninges consists of a dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.
2.Cerebral spinal fluid occupies the space between the arachnoid and pia maters.

Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid.
1.Ventricles are connected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem.
2.Cerebrospinal fluid fills the ventricles.
3.Choroid plexuses in the walls of the ventricles secrete cerebrospinal fluid.
4.Ependymal cells of the choroid plexus regulate the composition of cerebral spinal fluid.
5.Cerebrospinal fluid circulates through the ventricles and is reabsorbed into the blood of the dural sinuses.

Spinal cord.
1.The spinal cord is a nerve column that extends from the brain into the vertebral canal.
2.The spinal cord terminates at the level between the first and second lumbar vertebrae.
3.The spinal cord is the center for spinal reflexes.
4.Reflexes are autonomic, subconscious responses to changes.
5.Spinal reflexes help maintain homeostasis.
6.The knee-jerk reflex employs only two neurons.
7.Withdrawal reflexes are protective actions.
8.The spinal cord provides a two-way communication system between the brain and structures outside the nervous system.
9.Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses to the brain.
10.Descending tracts carry motor impulses to muscles and glands.
11.Many of the fibers in the ascending and descending tracts cross over in the spinal cord or brain.

Brain.
1.The brain is the largest and most complex part of the nervous system.
2.The brain contains nerve centers that are associated with sensations.
3.The brain issues motor commands and carries on higher mental functions.

Brain development.
1.The brain develops from a neural tube with three cavities-the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

Structure of the cerebrum.
1.The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum.
2.The cerebral surfaces marked by ridges and grooves.
3.Sulci divide each brain hemisphere into lobes.
4.The cerebral cortex is a thin layer of gray matter near the surface.
5.White matter consists of myelinated nerve fibers that interconnect neurons with the nervous system and communicate with other body parts.

Functions of the cerebral.
1.The cerebrum is concerned with higher brain functions, such as thought, reasoning, interpretation of sensory impulses, control involuntary muscles, and memory storage.

Basal nuclei.
1.Basal nuclei are masses of gray matter located deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
2.The neurons of the basal nuclei interact with other brain areas to facilitate voluntary movement.

Diencephalon.
1.The diencephalon contains the thalamus and the hypothalamus.
2.The thalamus selects incoming sensory impulses and relays them to the cerebral cortex.
3.The hypothalamus is important in maintaining homeostasis.

Brainstem.
1.The brainstem extends from the base of the brain to the spinal cord.
2.The brainstem consists of the midbrain, pons, and the medulla oblongata.
3.The reticular formation filters incoming sensory impulses, arousing the cerebral cortex into wakefulness in response to meaningful impulses.
4.Normal sleep results from decreasing activity of the reticular formation, and paradoxical sleep occurs when activating impulses are received from some parts of the brain, but not by others.

Cerebellum.
1.The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres connected by the vermis.
2.The cerebellum functions primarily as a reflex center, coordinating skeletal muscle movements and maintaining equilibrium.

Peripheral nervous system.
1.The peripheral nervous system consists of cranial and spinal nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord to all body parts.
2.The peripheral nervous system can be subdivided into somatic and autonomic portions.

Structure of peripheral nerves.
1.A nerve consists of a bundle of nerve fibers surrounded by connective tissues.

Nerve and nerve fiber classification.
1.Nerves are cord like bundles of nerve fibers.
2.Nerves can be classified as sensory nerves, motor nerves, or mixed nerves, depending on which type of fibers they contain.
3.Nerve fibers within the central nervous system can be subdivided into groups with general and special functions.

Cranial nerves.
1.12 pairs of cranial nerves connect the brain to parts in the head, neck, and trunk.

Spinal nerves.
1.31 pairs of spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord.
2.Spinal nerves provide a two-way communication system between the spinal cord and the upper limbs, lower limbs, neck, and trunk.
3.Each spinal nerve emerges by a dorsal root in the ventral root.
4.A dorsal root contain sensory fibers and has a dorsal root ganglion.
5.A ventral root contains motor fibers.

Autonomic nervous system.
1.The autonomic nervous system functions without conscious effort.
2.The autonomic nervous system is concerned primarily with regulating visceral activities that maintain homeostasis.
3.Autonomic functions are reflexes control from centers in the hypothalamus, brainstem, and spinal cord.
4.Autonomic nerve fibers are associated with ganglia where impulses are integrated before distribution to effectors.
5.The integrative function of the ganglia provides a degree of independence from the central nervous system.
6.The autonomic nervous system is divided into two divisions-sympathetic and parasympathetic.
7.The sympathetic division prepares the body for stressful and emergency conditions.
8.The parasympathetic division is most active under ordinary conditions.
9.
10.Autonomic neurotransmitters.
11.Sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic fibers secrete acetylcholine.
12.Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers secrete norepinephrine and are adrenergic.
13.Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers secrete acetylcholine and are cholinergic.
14.The different effects of the autonomic divisions are due to the different neurotransmitters the postganglionic fibers release.

Actions of autonomic neurotransmitters.
1.Neurotransmitters combine with receptors and alter cell membranes.
2.Acetylcholine acts very briefly.
3.Norepinephrine and epinephrine may have more prolonged effects.

Control of autonomic activity.
1.The central nervous system largely controls the autonomic nervous system.
2.The medulla oblongata uses autonomic fibers to regulate cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory activities.
3.The hypothalamus uses autonomic fibers in regulating visceral functions.
4.The limbic system and the cerebral cortex control emotional responses to the autonomic nervous system.

Please be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
1.figure 11.1 entirely page 386
2.figure 11.2 a page 387
3.figure 11.7 entirely page 393
4.figure 11.8 and 11.9 page 394
5.figure 11.15 a page 402
6.figure 11.16 a page 403
7.figure 11.21 page 412
8.figure 11.23 page 416
9.figure 11.40 page 434

review table 11.9: functions of cranial nerves found on page 422

AnP II Study Guide for Exam 3

Chapter 19: respiratory system.

Introduction.
1.Respiration is the entire process by which gases are exchange between the atmosphere and the body cells.

Why we breathe.
2.Respiration is necessary because of cellular respiration.
3.Cells require oxygen to extract maximal energy from nutrient molecules and to rid themselves of carbon dioxide, a metabolic waste.
4.
Bronchial tree.
5.The bronchial tree consists of branched air passages that connect the trachea to the air sacs.
6.Pseudostratified, ciliated epithelial cells line the large tubes of the bronchial tree.
7.Simple squamous epithelial cells line the smaller portions of the tubes and air sacs.

Lungs.
8.The left and right lungs are separated by the mediastinum.
9.The lungs are enclosed by the diaphragm and the thoracic cage.
10.The visceral pleura is attached to the surface of the lungs.
11.The parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity.
12.The right lung has three lobes.
13.The left lung has two lobes.
14.Each lobe of the lung is composed of lobules that contain alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and connective tissues.

Breathing mechanism.
15.Inspiration atmospheric pressure forces air into the lungs.
16.Inspiration occurs when the intra-alveolar pressure is reduced.
17.The intra-alveolar pressure is reduced when the diaphragm moves downward and thoracic cage moves upward and outward.
18.Surface tension holding the plural membranes together AIDS in lung expansion.
19.Surfactant reduces surface tension within the alveoli.

Expiration.
20.The forces of expiration come from the elastic recoil of the tissues and from surface tension within the alveoli.

Respiratory volumes and capacities.
21.One inspiration followed by one expiration is called the respiratory cycle.
22.The amount of air that moves in or out during a respiratory cycle is called a tidal volume.
23.Additional air that can be inhaled is the inspiratory reserve volume.
24.Additional air that can be exhaled is the expiratory reserve volume.
25.Residual air remains in the lungs and is mixed with newly inhaled air.
26.The inspiratory capacity is the maximum volume of air a person can inhale following exhalation of the tidal volume.
27.The vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can ask Hal after taking the deepest breath possible.
28.The total lung capacity is equal to the vital capacity plus the residual air volume.
29.Air in the anatomic and alveolar dead spaces is not available for gas exchange.

Non-respiratory air movements.
30.Non-respiratory air movements are air movements other than breathing.

Control of breathing.
31.Normal breathing is rhythmic and involuntary.
32.The respiratory areas are located in the brainstem and include parts of the medulla oblongata and pons.
33.The medullary rhythmicity center includes two groups of neurons.
34.The dorsal respiratory group is responsible for the basic rhythm of breathing.
35.The ventral respiratory group increases inspiratory and expiratory movements during forceful breathing.
36.The pontine respiratory group regulates the rate of breathing.

Factors affecting breathing.
37.Chemosensitive areas are associated with the respiratory center.
38.Peripheral chemoreceptors are in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies of certain arteries.
39.Peripheral chemoreceptors sense low oxygen levels.
40.When oxygen levels are low, alveolar ventilation increases.
41.Stretching the lung tissues triggers and inflation reflex.

Alveolar gas exchanges.
42.The alveoli are tiny sacs clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts.
43.The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar and capillary walls.
44.Gas exchange takes place through the respiratory membrane.
45.Gases diffuse from regions of higher partial pressure towards regions of lower partial pressure.
46.Oxygen defuses from the alveolar air into the blood.
47.Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveolar air.

Gas transport.
48.Blood transports gases between the lungs and the body cells.
49.Oxygen is mainly transported in combination with hemoglobin molecules.
50.Most carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions.\

Be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
51.figure 19.2
52.figure 19.8
53.figure 19.14
54.figure 19.26
55.figure 19.28
56.figure 19.29
57.figure 19.30
58.figure 19.33


Chapter 20: urinary system.

Introduction.
59.The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.

Kidney structure.
60.A kidney contains a hollow renal sinus.
61.The ureter expands into the renal pelvis.
62.The renal pelvis is divided into major and minor calyces.
63.The kidneys are positioned posterior to the parietal peritoneum.
64.Renal papillae project into the renal sinus.
65.Kidney tissue is divided into medulla and cortex.
66.The kidneys remove metabolic wastes from the blood and excrete them into the outside world.
67.The kidneys help regulate red blood cell production, blood pressure, calcium ion absorption, and the volume, composition and pH of the blood.

Nephrons.
68.A nephron is the functional units of the kidney.
69.A nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.
70.The renal corpuscle consists of a glomerulus in the glomerular capsule.
71.The nephron joins the collecting duct, which empties into a minor calyx.

Juxtaglomerular apparatus.
72.The juxtaglomerular apparatuses located the point of contact between the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent and efferent arterioles.
73.The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of the macula densa in the juxtaglomerular cells.

Blood supply the nephron.
74.The glomerular capillary receives blood from the afferent arteriole and passes it to the efferent arteriole.
75.Capillary loops, called vasa recta, dipped down into the medulla.

Urine formation.
76.Nephron's remove wastes from the blood and regulate water and electronic concentrations.
77.Urine is the product of these functions.

Glomerular filtration.
78.Urine formation begins when water and dissolve materials are filtered out of the glomerular capillary.
79.The glomerular capillaries are much more permeable than the capillaries in other tissues.
80.Filtration is mainly due to hydrostatic pressure inside the glomerular capillaries.
81.Osmotic pressure of the blood plasma and hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capsule also affect filtration.
82.Filtration pressure is the net force acting to move material out of the glomerulus and into the glomerular capsule.
83.The composition of the filtrate is similar to that of tissue fluid.

Filtration rate.
84.The rate of filtration varies with the filtration pressure.
85.Filtration pressure changes the diameters of the afferent and efferent arterioles.
86.As the osmotic pressure in the glomerulus increases, filtration decreases.
87.As the hydrostatic pressure and a glomerular capsule increases, the filtration rate decreases.

Control of filtration rate.
88.Increase sympathetic nerve activity can decreased glomerular filtration rate.

Tubular reabsorption.
89.Substances are selectively reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate.
90.The peritubular capillary is adapted for reabsorption.
91.Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal tubule, where the epithelial cells possess micro villi.
92.Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport.
93.Water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
94.Proteins are reabsorbed by endocytosis.
95.If the concentration of a substance in the filtrate exceeds its renal plasma threshold, the excess is excreted in the urine.
96.Substances that remain in the filtrate are concentrated as water is reabsorbed.
97.Sodium ions are reabsorbed by active transport.
98.Negatively charged ions the company positively charged sodium ions out of the filtrate.
99.Water is passively reabsorbed by osmosis as the sodium ions are actively reabsorbed.

Tubular secretion.
100.Tubular secretion transport certain substances from the plasma into the tubular fluid.
101.Substances which are actively secreted include various organic compounds and hydrogen ions.
102.Potassium ions are secreted both actively and passively in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.

Regulation of your and concentration volume.
103.Most of the sodium ions are absorbed before the urine is excreted.
104.ADH from the posterior pituitary gland increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts, promoting water reabsorption.

Urea and uric acid excretion.
105.Urea is a byproduct of amino acids metabolism.
106.Uric acid results from the metabolism of nucleic acids.
107.Renal clearances the rate at which a chemical is removed from the plasma.

Micturition.
108.Micturition is the process of expelling urine.
109.In micturition, the detrusor muscle contracts and the external urethral sphincter relaxes.
110.Distention stimulates stretch receptors in the urinary bladder wall.
111.The micturition reflex center in the sacral portion of the spinal cord sense parasympathetic motor impulses to the detrusor muscle.
112.As the urinary bladder fills, it's internal pressure increases, forcing the internal urethral sphincter to open.

Be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
113.figure 20.5
114.figure 20.8
115.figure 20.10
116.figure 20.12 entirely
117.figure 20.13
118.figure 20.14
119.figure 20.17 entirely
120.figure 20.32 entirely

AnP I Study Guide for Exam 3

Chapter 8: joints of the skeletal system.

Introduction.
1.A joint forms wherever two or more bones meet.
2.Joints are the functional junctions between bones.

Classification of joints.
3.Joints are classified according to the type of tissue that binds the bones together.
4.Bones at fibers joints are tightly fastened to each other by a layer of dense connective tissue with many collagenous fibers.
5.There are three types of fibers joints.
6.A syndesmosis has bones bound by along connective tissue fibers.
7.A suture is where flat bones are united by a thin layer of connective tissue.
8.A gomphosis is formed by the union of a cone shaped bony process with a bony socket.
9.A layer of cartilage holds together bones of cartilaginous joints.
10.There are two types of cartilaginous joints.
11.A synchondrosis occurs where bones are united by hyaline cartilage that may disappear as a result of growth.
12.A symphysis occurs where articular surfaces of the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage and the cartilage is attached to a pad of fibrocartilage.
13.Synovial joins have a more complex structure than other types of joints.
14.Synovial joints include articular cartilage, a joint capsule, and a synovial membrane.

General structure of a synovial joint.
15.Articular cartilage covers the articular ends of bones in a synovial joint.
16.Synovial joints have a joint capsule strengthen by ligaments which hold bones together.
17.A synovial membrane that secrete synovial fluid lines the inner layer of the joint capsule of the synovial joint.
18.Synovial fluid moistens, provides nutrients, and lubricates the articular surfaces of the synovial joint.
19.Menisci divide some synovial joints into compartments.
20.Bursa cushion and aid movement of tendons over bony parts.

Types of synovial joints.
21.Ball and socket joints.
22.Condyloid joints.
23.Gliding joints.
24.Hinge joints.
25.Pivot joints.
26.Saddle joints.

Types of joint movements.
27.Muscles acting at synovial joints produce movements in different directions and different planes.

Lifespan changes.
28.Joint stiffness is often the earliest sign of aging.
29.Collagen changes causes the feeling of stiffness.
30.Regular exercise can lessen the effects of aging.
31.Fibers joints are the first to begin to change and strengthen overall lifetime.
32.Synchondroses of the long bones disappear with the growth and development.
33.Changes in the symphysis joints of the vertebral column diminish flexibility and decrease height with aging.
34.Over time, synovial joints lose elasticity.

Be prepared to label the following diagram from your textbook:
35.figure 8.7
36.figure 8.8
37.figure 8.9 entirely
38.figure 8.10
39.figure 8.12
40.figure 8.13 a
41.figure 8.15 a
42.figure 8.18 a
43.figure 8.21 a

Chapter 9: muscular system.

Introduction.
44.The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

Structure of the skeletal muscle.
45.Skeletal muscles are composed of nervous, vascular, and various connective tissues, as well as skeletal muscle tissue area.
46.Fascia covers each skeletal muscle.
47.Fascia is part of a complex network of connective tissue that extends throughout the body.
48.Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single muscle cell, which is the unit of contraction.
49.Muscle fibers are cylindrical cells with many nuclei.
50.The functional unit of skeletal muscle is the sarcomere.
51.The sarcomere is composed of actin and myosin filaments.
52.Myosin filaments are thick and centrally placed in the sarcomere.
53.Actin filaments are thin and peripherally placed in the sarcomere.
54.Crossed bridges of myosin filaments form linkages with actin filaments.
55.The reaction between active and myosin filaments provides the basis for contraction.
56.The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized form of the endoplasmic reticulum.
57.The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves to sequester ionic calcium within the muscle fiber.
58.Ionic calcium is needed to catalyze muscle contraction.

Skeletal muscle contraction.
59.Muscle fiber contraction results from the sliding movement of actin and myosin filaments that shortens the muscle fiber.
60.Motor neuron stimulate muscle fibers to contract.
61.The motor end plate of a muscle fiber lies on one side of the neuromuscular junction.
62.One motor neuron in the muscle fibers associated with it constitute a motor unit.
63.The muscle fiber is usually stimulated by acetylcholine released from the end of a motor nerve fiber.
64.Acetylcholinesterase decomposes acetylcholine to prevent continuous stimulation.
65.As long as acetylcholine is present at the motor end plate, the muscle fiber continues to contract.
66.Removal of acetylcholine from the motor end plateresults in relaxation of the muscle fibers.

Excitation contraction coupling.
67.A muscle impulse signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release ionic calcium.
68.In the presence of ionic calcium, actin and myosin form cross-links.
69.When the thick and thin filaments slide past one another, the sarcomeres shorten.

Cross bridge cycling.
70.A myosin cross bridge can attach to an actin binding site and pull on the actin filament.
71.In the presence of ATP and ionic calcium, myosin and actin will continually form cross bridges and slide over each other.
72.The breakdown of ATP releases energy to provides the repetition of the cross bridge cycle.

Relaxation.
73.The muscle fiber relax is when ionic calcium is transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
74.In the absence of ionic calcium, the cross-links between actin and myosin break and do not reform.
75.Energy is required to relax the muscle fiber.
76.Relaxation is an energy dependent process.

Energy sources for contraction.
77.ATP supplies the energy for muscle fiber contraction.
78.Creatine phosphate stores energy that can be used to synthesize ATP as it is decomposed.
79.Active muscles depend on cellular respiration for energy.
80.Anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration yields few ATP molecules.
81.Anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration provide abundant ATP molecules.
82.Hemoglobin in red blood cells carries oxygen from the lungs to the body cells.
83.Myoglobin muscles cells store some oxygen temporarily.

Oxygen debt.
84.During rest or moderate exercise, oxygen is sufficient to support the aerobic reactions of cellular respiration.
85.During strenuous exercise, oxygen deficiency may develop, and lactic acid may accumulate as a result of the anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration.
86.The amount of oxygen needed to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose and to restore supplies of ATP in creatine phosphate is called oxygen debt.

Muscle fatigue.
87.Fatigue muscle loses its ability to contract.
88.Muscle fatigue is usually due to the effects of the accumulation of lactic acid.

Heat production.
89.Muscles represent an important source of body heat.
90.Most of the energy released by cellular respiration is lost as heat.

Muscular responses.
91.The latent period is the time between stimulus and responding contraction.
92.During the refractory period immediately following contraction, a muscle fiber cannot respond.
93.If they muscle fiber contracts all, it will contract completely.
94.A muscle fiber contracts according to the all or none response.
95.The length to which a muscle is stretched before stimulation effects the force it will develop.
96.Muscles whose motor units contain small numbers of muscle fibers produce finer movements.

Types of contractions.
97.And isotonic contraction occurs when the muscle contracts and its ends are pulled closer together.
98.When a muscle contracts but it's attachments to not move, the contraction is called isometric.

Fast and slow twitch muscle fibers.
99.Slow contracting, or read muscles can generate ATP fast enough to keep up with ATP breakdown and can contract for long periods.
100.Fast contracting, or white, muscles have reduced ability to carry on the aerobic reactions of cellular respiration and tend to fatigue relatively rapidly.

Skeletal muscle actions.
101.The movable end of attachment of the skeletal muscle to bone is its insertion.
102.The immovable end of attachment of the skeletal muscle to bone is its origin.
103.A prime mover is responsible for most of the movement.
104.Synergists aid prime movers.
105.Antagonists resist the movement of a prime mover.

Be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
106.figure 9.2
107.figure 9.5 a
108.figure 9.6
109.figure 9.7
110.figure 9.23
111.figure 9.24
112.figure 9.25 a
113.figure 9.28
114.figure 9.29 a
115.figure 9.32 a
116.figure 9.33 a
117.figure 9.37 a
118.figure 9.38 a
119.figure 9.39 a
120.figure 9.41 a
121.figure 9.42 a
122.figure 9.4 3A