Chapter 19: respiratory system.
Introduction.
1. Respiration is the entire process by which gases are exchange between the atmosphere and the body cells.
Why we breathe.
2. Respiration is necessary because of cellular respiration.
3. Cells require oxygen to extract maximal energy from nutrient molecules and to rid themselves of carbon dioxide, a metabolic waste.
4.
Bronchial tree.
5. The bronchial tree consists of branched air passages that connect the trachea to the air sacs.
6. Pseudostratified, ciliated epithelial cells line the large tubes of the bronchial tree.
7. Simple squamous epithelial cells line the smaller portions of the tubes and air sacs.
Lungs.
8. The left and right lungs are separated by the mediastinum.
9. The lungs are enclosed by the diaphragm and the thoracic cage.
10. The visceral pleura is attached to the surface of the lungs.
11. The parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity.
12. The right lung has three lobes.
13. The left lung has two lobes.
14. Each lobe of the lung is composed of lobules that contain alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and connective tissues.
Breathing mechanism.
15. Inspiration atmospheric pressure forces air into the lungs.
16. Inspiration occurs when the intra-alveolar pressure is reduced.
17. The intra-alveolar pressure is reduced when the diaphragm moves downward and thoracic cage moves upward and outward.
18. Surface tension holding the plural membranes together AIDS in lung expansion.
19. Surfactant reduces surface tension within the alveoli.
Expiration.
20. The forces of expiration come from the elastic recoil of the tissues and from surface tension within the alveoli.
Respiratory volumes and capacities.
21. One inspiration followed by one expiration is called the respiratory cycle.
22. The amount of air that moves in or out during a respiratory cycle is called a tidal volume.
23. Additional air that can be inhaled is the inspiratory reserve volume.
24. Additional air that can be exhaled is the expiratory reserve volume.
25. Residual air remains in the lungs and is mixed with newly inhaled air.
26. The inspiratory capacity is the maximum volume of air a person can inhale following exhalation of the tidal volume.
27. The vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can ask Hal after taking the deepest breath possible.
28. The total lung capacity is equal to the vital capacity plus the residual air volume.
29. Air in the anatomic and alveolar dead spaces is not available for gas exchange.
Non-respiratory air movements.
30. Non-respiratory air movements are air movements other than breathing.
Control of breathing.
31. Normal breathing is rhythmic and involuntary.
32. The respiratory areas are located in the brainstem and include parts of the medulla oblongata and pons.
33. The medullary rhythmicity center includes two groups of neurons.
34. The dorsal respiratory group is responsible for the basic rhythm of breathing.
35. The ventral respiratory group increases inspiratory and expiratory movements during forceful breathing.
36. The pontine respiratory group regulates the rate of breathing.
Factors affecting breathing.
37. Chemosensitive areas are associated with the respiratory center.
38. Peripheral chemoreceptors are in the carotid bodies and aortic bodies of certain arteries.
39. Peripheral chemoreceptors sense low oxygen levels.
40. When oxygen levels are low, alveolar ventilation increases.
41. Stretching the lung tissues triggers and inflation reflex.
Alveolar gas exchanges.
42. The alveoli are tiny sacs clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts.
43. The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar and capillary walls.
44. Gas exchange takes place through the respiratory membrane.
45. Gases diffuse from regions of higher partial pressure towards regions of lower partial pressure.
46. Oxygen defuses from the alveolar air into the blood.
47. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveolar air.
Gas transport.
48. Blood transports gases between the lungs and the body cells.
49. Oxygen is mainly transported in combination with hemoglobin molecules.
50. Most carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions.\
Be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
51. figure 19.2
52. figure 19.8
53. figure 19.14
54. figure 19.26
55. figure 19.28
56. figure 19.29
57. figure 19.30
58. figure 19.33
Chapter 20: urinary system.
Introduction.
59. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
Kidney structure.
60. A kidney contains a hollow renal sinus.
61. The ureter expands into the renal pelvis.
62. The renal pelvis is divided into major and minor calyces.
63. The kidneys are positioned posterior to the parietal peritoneum.
64. Renal papillae project into the renal sinus.
65. Kidney tissue is divided into medulla and cortex.
66. The kidneys remove metabolic wastes from the blood and excrete them into the outside world.
67. The kidneys help regulate red blood cell production, blood pressure, calcium ion absorption, and the volume, composition and pH of the blood.
Nephrons.
68. A nephron is the functional units of the kidney.
69. A nephron consists of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.
70. The renal corpuscle consists of a glomerulus in the glomerular capsule.
71. The nephron joins the collecting duct, which empties into a minor calyx.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus.
72. The juxtaglomerular apparatuses located the point of contact between the distal convoluted tubule and the afferent and efferent arterioles.
73. The juxtaglomerular apparatus consists of the macula densa in the juxtaglomerular cells.
Blood supply the nephron.
74. The glomerular capillary receives blood from the afferent arteriole and passes it to the efferent arteriole.
75. Capillary loops, called vasa recta, dipped down into the medulla.
Urine formation.
76. Nephron's remove wastes from the blood and regulate water and electronic concentrations.
77. Urine is the product of these functions.
Glomerular filtration.
78. Urine formation begins when water and dissolve materials are filtered out of the glomerular capillary.
79. The glomerular capillaries are much more permeable than the capillaries in other tissues.
80. Filtration is mainly due to hydrostatic pressure inside the glomerular capillaries.
81. Osmotic pressure of the blood plasma and hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capsule also affect filtration.
82. Filtration pressure is the net force acting to move material out of the glomerulus and into the glomerular capsule.
83. The composition of the filtrate is similar to that of tissue fluid.
Filtration rate.
84. The rate of filtration varies with the filtration pressure.
85. Filtration pressure changes the diameters of the afferent and efferent arterioles.
86. As the osmotic pressure in the glomerulus increases, filtration decreases.
87. As the hydrostatic pressure and a glomerular capsule increases, the filtration rate decreases.
Control of filtration rate.
88. Increase sympathetic nerve activity can decreased glomerular filtration rate.
Tubular reabsorption.
89. Substances are selectively reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate.
90. The peritubular capillary is adapted for reabsorption.
91. Most reabsorption occurs in the proximal tubule, where the epithelial cells possess micro villi.
92. Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport.
93. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis.
94. Proteins are reabsorbed by endocytosis.
95. If the concentration of a substance in the filtrate exceeds its renal plasma threshold, the excess is excreted in the urine.
96. Substances that remain in the filtrate are concentrated as water is reabsorbed.
97. Sodium ions are reabsorbed by active transport.
98. Negatively charged ions the company positively charged sodium ions out of the filtrate.
99. Water is passively reabsorbed by osmosis as the sodium ions are actively reabsorbed.
Tubular secretion.
100. Tubular secretion transport certain substances from the plasma into the tubular fluid.
101. Substances which are actively secreted include various organic compounds and hydrogen ions.
102. Potassium ions are secreted both actively and passively in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.
Regulation of your and concentration volume.
103. Most of the sodium ions are absorbed before the urine is excreted.
104. ADH from the posterior pituitary gland increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts, promoting water reabsorption.
Urea and uric acid excretion.
105. Urea is a byproduct of amino acids metabolism.
106. Uric acid results from the metabolism of nucleic acids.
107. Renal clearances the rate at which a chemical is removed from the plasma.
Micturition.
108. Micturition is the process of expelling urine.
109. In micturition, the detrusor muscle contracts and the external urethral sphincter relaxes.
110. Distention stimulates stretch receptors in the urinary bladder wall.
111. The micturition reflex center in the sacral portion of the spinal cord sense parasympathetic motor impulses to the detrusor muscle.
112. As the urinary bladder fills, it's internal pressure increases, forcing the internal urethral sphincter to open.
Be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
113. figure 20.5
114. figure 20.8
115. figure 20.10
116. figure 20.12 entirely
117. figure 20.13
118. figure 20.14
119. figure 20.17 entirely
120. figure 20.32 entirely
