SC 1332 Chapter Review

Here is the Chapter Review for Chapters14, 15 and 16. This is intended to help focus you for the first exam which covers these three chapter.


Chapter 14: blood

Introduction.
1.Blood is often considered a type of connective tissue who cells were suspended in a liquid extracellular matrix.
2.It transports substances between the body cells in the external environment and helps maintain a stable internal environment.

Blood in blood cells.
1.Blood can be separated into formed elements and liquid portions.
2.The formed elements portion is mostly red blood cells.
3.the liquid plasma includes water, amino acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, hormones, electrolytes, and cellular wastes.
4.Blood cells develop from hemocytoblasts, hemopoietic stem cells in red bone marrow.
5.Cells descended from stem cells respond to hemopoietic growth factors to specialize.
6.Thrombopoietin stimulates megakaryocytes to give rise to platelets.
7.Erythropoietin stimulates formation of red blood cells.
8.Red blood cells or by concave disks with shapes that provide increased surface area and place their cell membranes close to internal structures.
9.Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which combines loosely with oxygen.
10.Mature red blood cells lack nuclei and other organelles, but contain enzymes needed for energy releasing processes.
11.Red blood cell count is related to the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood and is used in diagnosing and evaluating the courses of diseases.
12.During fetal development, red blood cells form in the yolk sac, liver, and spleen.
13.In adulthood red blood cells are produced in the red bone marrow.
14.Erythropoietin is released in response to low oxygen levels.
15.High altitude, loss of blood, or chronic lung disease can lower oxygen concentration in the blood.
16.The availability of vitamin B12, iron, and folic acid affects red blood cell production.
17.Red blood cells are fragile and are damaged while moving through capillaries.
18.Macrophages in the spleen and liver phagocytize damaged red blood cells.
19.Hemoglobin molecules are decomposed, and the iron from the heme portion is recycled.
20.Biliverdin and bilirubin are pigments, released from heme portion, excreted in bile.
21.The globin portion is broken down into amino acids metabolized by macrophages or released into the blood.
22.Granulocytes include neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
23.Agranulocytes include monocytes and lymphocytes.
24.White blood cells fight infection.
25.Neutrophils and monocytes phagocytize foreign particles.
26.Chemicals released by damaged cells attract and stimulate leukocytes.
27.Eosinophils kill parasites and help control inflammation and allergic reactions.
28.Basophils release heparin, which inhibits blood clotting, and histamine to increase blood flow to tissues that are injured.
29.Lymphocytes are involved in immunity and produce antibodies that attack specific foreign antigens.
30.The number of white blood cells may change in abnormal conditions such as infections, emotional disturbances, or excessive loss of body fluids.
31.A differential white blood cell count indicate the percentage is of various types of leukocytes present.
32.Blood platelets are fragments of megakaryocytes that enter circulation.
33.Platelets help close breaks in blood vessels.

Blood plasma.
1.Plasma is the liquid portion of the blood that is composed of water and a mixture of organic and inorganic substances.
2.Plasma transports nutrients and gases, helps regulate fluid and electronic balance, and helps maintain stable pH.
3.Plasma proteins remain in blood and interstitial fluids and are not normally used as energy sources.
4.Albumins help maintain the osmotic pressure of plasma.
5.Globulin's provide immunity (antibodies) and transport lipids and fat soluble vitamins.
6.Fibrinogen functions in clotting blood.
7.Gases in plasma include oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen.
8.Plasma nutrients include simple sugars, amino acids, and lipids.
9.Glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen and is released whenever the blood glucose concentration falls.
10.Amino acids are used to synthesize proteins and are deaminated for use as an energy source.
11.Lipoproteins function in the transport of lipids.
12.Nonprotein nitrogenous substances are composed of molecules that contain nitrogen atoms but are not proteins.
13.Nonprotein nitrogenous substances include amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, and creatinine.
14.Urea and uric acid are products of catabolism.
15.Creatinine results from the metabolism of creatine.
16.Plasma electrolytes are absorbed from the intestines and are released as byproducts of cellular metabolism.
17.Plasma electrolytes are important in the maintenance of osmotic pressure and pH.

Hemostasis.
1.Hemostasis refers to the stoppage of bleeding.
2.Hemostatic mechanisms are most effective in controlling blood loss from small vessels.
3.Hemostasis consists of blood vessel spasm (vasospasm), platelet plug formation, blood coagulation, and prevention of coagulation.
4.During vasospasm smooth muscles and walls of small blood vessels reflexively contract following injury.
5.During the vasospasm platelets release serotonin that stimulates vasoconstriction and helps maintain vessel spasm.
6.During platelet plug formation platelets adhere to rough surfaces and exposed collagen area
7.during platelet plug formation platelets adhere together at the sight of injuries and form platelet plugs in broken vessels.
8.Blood clotting, the most effective means of hemostasis, involves a series of reactions wherein each reaction stimulates the next reaction.
9.The extrinsic clotting mechanism is triggered when blood contacts damaged tissue.
10.The intrinsic clotting mechanism is triggered when blood contacts a foreign surface.
11.Clot formation depends on the balance between clotting factors that promote clotting and those that inhibit clotting.
12.The major event of coagulation is the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into in soluble fibrin.
13.After forming, the clock retracts and pulls the edges of a broken vessel closer together.
14.Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin.
15.Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
16.Plasmin is a proteins splitting enzymes a can digest fibrin threads and other proteins associated with blood clots.
17.A thrombus is an abnormal blood clot in a vessel.
18.And embolus is a clot or fragment of a clot that moves in a vessel.
19.Fibroblasts invade a clot, forming connective tissue throughout.
20.The smooth lining of blood vessels discourages the accumulation of platelets.
21.As a clot forms, fibrin absorbs thrombin and prevents the reaction from spreading.
22.Some cells secrete heparin, an anticoagulant.

Blood groups and transfusions.
1.Blood can be typed on the basis of the surface structures of its cells.
2.Red blood cell membranes may contain specific antigens, and blood plasma may contain antibodies against certain of these antigens.
3.Blood typing uses known antibodies to identify antigens on red blood cell membranes.
4.Blood can be grouped according to the presence or absence of antigens A and B.
5.Whenever antigen A is absent, anti-A antibodies are present.
6.Whenever antigen B is absent, anti-B antibodies are present.
7.Adverse transfusion reactions are avoided by preventing the mixing of red blood cells that contain an antigen with plasma that contains the corresponding antibody.
8.Adverse reactions are due to agglutination of the red blood cells.
9.Rh antigens are present on the red blood cell membranes of Rh positive blood.
10.Rh antigens are absent in Rh negative blood.
11.If in Rh negative person is exposed to Rh positive blood, anti-Rh antibodies are produced in response.
12.If an Rh negative female is pregnant with an Rh positive fetus, some of the positive cells may enter the maternal blood at the time of birth and stimulate the maternal tissues to produce anti-Rh antibodies.
13.Anti-Rh antibodies in maternal blood may pass through the placental tissues and react with the red blood cells of an Rh positive fetus.


Chapter 15: cardiovascular system.

Introduction
1.The cardiovascular system is composed of the heart and blood vessels, which circulate blood to supply oxygen to, and remove wastes from, body cells.

Structure of the heart.
1.The heart is located within the mediastinum and rests on the diaphragm.
2.A layered pericardium encloses the heart.
3.The pericardial cavity is a space between the visceral and parietal layers of the pericardium.
4.The wall the hardest three layers.
5.The layers of the heart include and epicardial, a myocardium, and and endocardial.
6.The heart is divided into four chambers.
7.The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava and the coronary sinus.
8.The tricuspid valve guards the right atrioventricular orifice.
9.The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary trunk.
10.The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins.
11.The mitral valve guards the left atrioventricular orifice.
12.The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta.
13.The aortic valve guards the base of aorta.
14.The skeleton of the heart consists of fibers rings that enclosed the basis of the pulmonary artery, aorta, and atrioventricular orifices.
15.The fibers rings of the skeleton of the heart provide attachments for valves in muscle fibers.
16.Blood that is relatively low in oxygen and high in carbon dioxide enter the right side of the heart from the vena cava and coronary sinus and then is pumped into the pulmonary circulation.
17.After the blood is oxygenated in the lungs and some of the carbon dioxide is removed, it returns to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary veins.
18.The blood moves from the left ventricle into the aorta.

Heart actions.
1.The atria contract while the ventricles relax.
2.The ventricles contract while the atria relax.
3.Contraction of the heart muscle is called systole.
4.Relaxation of the heart muscle is called diastole.
5.Heart sounds are due to the vibrations that the valve movements produce.
6.The first heart sound occurs with A-V valve closure.
7. The second heart sound occurs with the closing of the pulmonary and aortic valves.
8.Cardiac muscle fibers connect to form a functional syncytium.
9.Cardiac muscle fibers are connected by intercalated discs.
10.If any part of the syncytium stimulated, the whole structure contracts as a unit.
11.The cardiac conduction system is composed of specialized cardiac muscle tissue which initiates and conducts a depolarization wave throughout the myocardium.
12.Impulses from the SA node pass slowly to the AV node.
13.Impulses travel rapidly along the AV bundle and Purkinje fibers.
14.Muscles fibers in the ventricular wall form whorls that squeeze blood out of the contracting ventricles.
15.An EKG records electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle.
16.The P-wave represents atrial depolarization.
17.The QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization.
18.The T wave represents ventricular repolarization.
19.Parasympathetic impulses decrease heart action.
20.Sympathetic impulses increase heart action.
21.The cardiac center in the middle oblongs regulates autonomic impulses to the heart.

Blood vessels.
1.The blood vessels form a closed circuit of tubes that transport blood between the heart and body cells.
2.The arteries are adapted to carry relatively high pressure blood away from the heart.
3.The arterioles are branches of arteries.
4. The walls of arteries and arterioles consists of layers of endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue.
5.Autonomic fibers that can stimulate vasoconstriction or vasodilation innervate smooth muscles in vessel walls.
6.Capillaries connect arterioles and venules.
7.The capillary wall is a single layer of cells that forms a semipermeable membrane.
8.Openings in the capillary walls are thin slits between endothelial cells.
9.Endothelial cells or brain capillaries are tightly fused, forming a blood brain barrier through which substances moved by facilitated diffusion.
10.Capillary density varies directly with tissue metabolic rates.
11.Pre-capillary sphincters regulate capillary blood flow.
12.Pre-capillary sphincters open when cells are low in oxygen and nutrients and close when cellular needs are met.
13.Gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts are exchange between the capillary blood and the tissue fluid.
14.Diffusion provides the most important means of transport between the capillary blood in the tissue fluid.
15.Plasma proteins generally remain in the blood.
16.Filtration, which is due to the hydrostatic pressure of blood, causing outward movement of fluid at the arteriolar end of the capillary.
17.Venules continue from capillaries and merge to form veins.
18.Veins carry blood to the heart.
19.Venus walls are similar to arterial walls but are thinner and contain less muscle and elastic tissue.

Blood pressure.
1.Blood pressure is the force of blood exerts against the insides of the blood vessels.
2.The arterial blood pressure is produced primarily by heart action.
3.Arterial blood pressure rises and falls with phases of the cardiac cycle.
4.Systolic pressure occurs when the ventricles contract.
5.Diastolic pressure occurs when the ventricles relax.
6.Heart action, blood volume, resistance to flow, and blood viscosity influence arterial blood pressure.
7.Arterial blood pressure increases as cardiac output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, or blood viscosity increases.
8.Blood pressure is controlled in part by the mechanisms that regulate cardiac output and peripheral resistance.
9.Cardiac output depends on the volume of blood discharged from the ventricle with each beat (stroke volume) and on the heart rate.
10.The more blood enters the heart, the stronger the ventricular contraction, the greater the stroke volume, and the greater the cardiac output.
11.The cardiac center of the medulla oblongata regulates heart rate.
12.Changes in the diameter of the arterioles, controlled by the vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata, regulate peripheral resistance.
13.Venus blood flow is not a direct result of heart action.
14.Venus blood flow depends on skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and venoconstriction.
15.Many veins contain flat like valves that prevent blood from backing up.
16.Central venous pressure is the pressure in the right atrium.

Paths of circulation.
1.The pulmonary circuit consists of vessels that carry blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, alveolar capillaries, and vessels that lead back to the left atrium.
2.Osmotic pressure rapidly draws water out of the alveoli into the interstitial fluid, so alveoli do not fill with fluid.
3.The systemic circuit is composed of vessels that lead from the heart to all body parts (including vessels supplying the heart itself) and back to the heart.
4.The systemic circuit includes the aorta and its branches as well is the system of veins that return blood to the right nutrients.

Arterial system.
See drawing.

Venous system.
See drawing.

Chapter 16: lymphatic system and immunity.

Introduction.
1.The lymphatic system is closely associated with the cardiovascular system.
2.The lymphatic system transports excess fluid to the blood stream, absorbs fats, and helps defend the body against disease causing agents.

Lyphathic pathways
1.Lymphatic capillaries are microscopic, closed ended tubes that extend into interstitial spaces.
2.They receive fluid through their thin walls.
3.Lacteals are lymphatic capillaries in villi of the small intestine.
4.Lymphatic vessels are formed by the merging of lymphatic capillaries.
5.Lymphatic vessels have walls similar to veins, only thinner, and possess fat old is that prevent back flow of lymph.
6.Larger lymphatic vessels lead to lymph nodes and then merge into lymphatic trunks.
7.Lymphatic trunks drain lymph from large body regions.
8.Trunks lead to to collecting ducts: the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct.
9.Collecting ducts join the subclavian veins.
10.Tissue fluid originates from plasma and includes water and dissolve substances that have passed through the capillary wall.
11.As the protein concentration of tissue fluids increases, colloid osmotic pressure increases.
12.Lymph returns to smaller protein molecules and fluid to the blood stream.
13.It transports foreign particles to lymph nodes.
14.Lymph is under low pressure and may not flow readily without external aid.
15.Lymph is moved by the contraction of skeletal muscles and low pressure in the thorax created by breathing movements.
16.Any condition that interferes with the flow of lymph results in edema.
17.Obstruction of lymphatic vessels due to surgical removal of lymph nodes causes edema in the affected area.

Lymph nodes.
1.Lymph nodes are enclosed in connective tissue that extends into the nodes and subdivides them into nodules.
2.Nodules contain masses of lymphocytes and macrophages, as well as spaces through which lymph flows.
3.Lymph nodes aggregate in groups or chains along the paths of larger lymphatic vessels.
4.Lymph nodes primarily occur in cervical, axillary, supratrochlear, and inguinal regions as well as in the pelvic, abdominal, and thoracic cavities.
5.Lymph nodes filter potentially harmful foreign particles from the lymph before it is returned to the blood stream.
6.Lymph nodes are centers for the production of lymphocytes that act against foreign particles.
7.Lymph nodes contain macrophages that remove foreign particles from lymph.

Thymus and spleen.
1.The thymus is a soft, bilobed organ located with in the mediastinum.
2.They thymus is composed of lymphatic tissue subdivided into lobes.
3.Thymic lobes contain lymphocytes that develop from precursor cells in the red bone marrow.
4.Some lymphocytes leave the thymus and provide immunity.
5.The thymus secretes thymosin, which stimulates lymphocytes that have migrated to other lymphatic tissues.
6.The spleen is located in the upper left portion of the abdominal cavity.
7.The spleen resembles a large lymph node that is encapsulated and subdivided into lobes by connective tissue.
8.Spaces within the splenic lobes are filled with blood.
9.The spleen, which filters foreign particles and damaged red blood cells from the blood, contains many macrophages and lymphocytes.

Body defenses against infection.
1.The presence and reproduction of pathogens cause infection.
2.Pathogens include bacteria, complex single celled organisms, fungi, and viruses.
3.An infection may be present without immediately causing symptoms.
4.The body has innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (specific those parenthesis defenses against infection.

Innate (nonspecific) defenses.
1.Each species is resistant to certain diseases that may affect other species but is susceptible to diseases other species may resist.
2.Mechanical barriers include skin and mucous membranes.
3.Intact mechanical barriers prevent entrance of some pathogens.
4.Hair traps infectious agents; and fluids such as tears, sweat, saliva, mucus, and urine wash away organisms before they can firmly attach.
5.Enzymes and gastric juice and tears kill some pathogens.
6.Low pH in the stomach prevents growth of some bacteria.
7.High salt concentration in perspiration kill some bacteria.
8.Interferons stimulate uninfected cells to synthesize antiviral proteins that block proliferation of viruses.
9.Defensins make holes in bacterial cell walls and membranes.
10.Collectins provide broad protection against a wide variety of microbes by grabbing onto them.
11.Activation of complement proteins in plasma stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytes, and enhances phagocytosis.
12.Natural killer cells secrete perforins, which destroy cancer cells and cells infected with viruses.
13.Inflammation is a tissue response to damage, injury, or infection.
14.The response includes localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain.
15.Chemicals released by damaged tissues attract white blood cells to the site.
16.Clotting may occur in body fluids that accumulate in affected tissues.
17.Connective tissue containing many fibers may form a sac around the injured tissue and thus aid in preventing the spread of pathogens.
18.The most active phagocytes in blood are neutrophils and monocytes.
19.Monocytes give rise to macrophages when they exit the blood stream.
20.Phagocytes remove foreign particles from tissues and body fluids.
21.Viral or bacterial infections stimulates certain lymphocytes to secrete interleukin-1 (IL-1), which temporarily raises body temperature.
22.Physical factors, such as heat or ultraviolet light, or chemical factors, such as acids or bases, can cause fever.
23.Elevated body temperature and the resulting decrease in body iron level and increased phagocytic activity hamper infection.

Adaptive (specific) defenses or immunity.
1.Before birth, body cells inventory “self” proteins and other large molecules.
2.After inventory, lymphocytes develop receptors that allow them to differentiate between nonself (foreign) and self antigens.
3.Nonself antigens combined with T-cell and B-cell surface receptors and stimulate the cells to cause an immune reaction.
4.Hapetens are small molecules that can combine with larger ones, becoming antigenic.
5.Lymphocytes originate in red bone marrow and are released into the blood before they differentiate.
6.Some lymphocytes reach the thymus which mature into T cells.
7.B cells, mature in the red bone marrow.
8.T cells respond to antigens by cell to cell contact (cellular immune response).
9.T cells secrete cytokines, such as interleukins, that enhance cellular responses to antigens.
10.T cells may also secrete substances that are toxic to their target cells.
11.B cells interact with antigen bearing agents indirectly, providing the humoral immune response.
12.The members of each B-lyphocyte variety respond only to a specific antigen.
13.As a group, the members of each variety form a clone.
14.T cells are activated when an immune presenting cell displays a foreign antigen.
15.When a macrophage acts as an accessory cell, it will phagocytize the antigen bearing agent, digest the agent, and displays the antigens on its cell membrane in association with certain MHC proteins.
16.A helper T cell becomes activated when it encounters displayed antigens for which it is specialized to react.
17.Once activated, helper T cells stimulate B cells to produce antibodies.
18.Cytotoxic T cells recognize foreign antigens on tumor cells and cells who surfaces indicate that they are infected by viruses.
19.Stimulated cytotoxic T cells secrete perforins to destroy the cells.
20.Memory T cells allow for immediate response to second and subsequent exposure to the same antigen.

B cells and humoral immunity.
1.A B cell is activated when it encounters an antigen that fits its antigen receptors.
2.An activated B cell proliferates (especially when stimulated by a T-cell), enlarging its clone.
3.Some activated B cells specialize into antibody producing plasma cells.
4.Antibodies react against the antigen bearing agent that stimulated their production.
5.An individual's diverse B cells defend against a very large number of pathogens.
6.Antibodies are soluble proteins called immunoglobulins.
7.Antibodies constitute the gamma globulin fraction of plasma.
8.The five major types of immunoglobulins are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE.
9.IgG, IgA and IgM make up most of the circulating antibodies.
10.Antibodies directly attached to antigens, activate complement, or stimulate local tissue changes that are unfavorable to antigen bearing agents.
11.Direct attachment results in agglutination, precipitation, or neutralization.
12.Activate complement proteins alter infected cells so they become more susceptible to phagocytosis, attract phagocytes, and lyse foreign cell membranes.
13.B Cells or T cells first encountering an antigen for which they are specialized to react constitutes a primary immune response.
14.During this response, antibodies are produced for several weeks.
15.Some B cells remain dormant as memory cells.
16.A secondary immune response occurs rapidly as a result of memory cell response if the same antigen is encountered later.
17.A person who encounters a pathogen and has a primary immune response develops naturally acquired active immunity.
18.A person who receives a vaccine containing a dead or weakened pathogen, or part of it, develops artificially acquired active immunity.
19.A person who receives an injection of antibodies or antitoxin has artificially acquired passive immunity.
20.When antibodies pass through a placental membrane from a pregnant woman to her fetus, the fetus develops naturally acquired passive immunity.
21.As a general rule, active immunity lasts much longer than passive immunity.

Allergic reactions.
1.Allergic or hypersensitivity reactions are excessive misdirected immune responses that may damage tissues.
2.Immediate reaction allergy is an inborn ability to overproduce IgE.
3.Allergic reactions result from mast cells bursting and releasing allergy mediators such as histamine and serotonin.
4.The released chemicals cause allergy symptoms such as hives, hay fever, asthma, eczema, or gastric disturbances.
5.In anaphylactic shock, allergy mediators flood the body, causing severe symptoms, including decreased blood pressure and difficulty breathing.
6.Antibody dependent cytotoxic allergic reactions occur when blood transfusions are mismatched.
7.Immune complex allergic reactions involve autoimmunity, which is an immune reaction against self antigens.
8.Delayed reaction allergy, which can occur in anyone and inflame the skin, results from repeated exposure to allergens.

Transplantation and tissue rejection.
1.A transplant recipient's immune system may react against the donated tissue in a tissue rejection reaction.
2.Matching cell surface molecules (MHC antigens) of donor and recipient tissues and using immunosuppressive drugs can minimize tissue rejection.
3.Immunosuppressive drugs may increase susceptibility to infection.
4.Transplants may take place between genetically identical twins, from one body part to another, between unrelated individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species.

Lifespan changes.
1.The immune system begins to decline early in life, in part due to the decreasing size of the thymus.
2.Numbers of T cells and B cells do not change significantly, but activity levels do.
3.Proportions of the different antibody classes shift.