SC 1232 Chapter Review

Here is the Chapter Review for Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 6. This is intended to help focus you for the first exam which covers these four chapter.

Chapter 3: Cells

Introduction.
Differentiated cells vary considerably in size, shape, and function.
Specialized cells descended from less specialized cells.

A composite cell.
1.A cell includes a nucleus, cytoplasm, and they cell membrane.
2.The cell membrane forms the outermost limit of the living material.
3.The cell membrane acts as a selectively permeable passageway that controls the movements of substances between the cell and its surroundings and thus the sight of signal transduction.
4.The cell membrane includes protein, lipid, and carbohydrate molecules.
5.The cell membrane framework mainly consists of a double layer of phospholipid molecules.
6.Molecules are soluble in lipids pass through the membrane easily, but water-soluble molecules do not.
7.Cholesterol molecules help stabilize the cell membrane.
8.Proteins provides special functions of the cell membrane, as receptors, cell surface markers of self, transporters, enzymes, and cellular adhesion molecules.
9.The cytoplasm contains networks of membranes and organelles suspended in fluid.
10.Ribosomes are structures of protein and RNA that function in protein synthesis.
11.Endoplasmic reticulum is composed of connective membranous sacs, canals, and vesicles that provide a tubular communication system and attachment for ribosomes; it also functions in the synthesis of proteins and lipids.
12.The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened, membranous sacs that package glycoproteins for secretion.
13.Mitochondria are membranous sacs containing enzymes that catalyze the reactions that release energy from nutrient molecules and transform it into a usable form.
14.Lysosomes are membranous sacs containing digestive enzymes that destroy debris and worn-out organelles.
15.The centrosome is a non-membranous structure consisting of two centrioles that aid in the distribution of chromosomes during cell division.
16.Cilia are hair-like structures that wave, moving fluids around the cell surfaces.
17.Flagella are long projections that gives cells mobility.
18.Microfilaments and microtubules eight cellular movements and support and stabilize the cytoplasm.
19.The nucleus is enclosed in a double layer to nuclear envelope that has nuclear pores that control movement of substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
20.In nucleolus is a dense body of protein and RNA where ribosomes synthesis occurs.
21.Chromatin is composed of loosely coiled fibers of protein and DNA that condense into chromosomes during cell division.

Movements into and out of cells.
1.Diffusion is due to the random movement of molecules in air or liquid solution.
2.Diffusion is movement of molecules were ions from regions of higher concentration toward regions of lower concentration (down the concentration gradient).
3.The most important factor determining the rate of diffusion in the body include distance, the concentration gradient, and temperature.
4.Facilitated diffusion uses proteins channels or carrier molecules in the cell membrane.
5.Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which water molecules diffuse from regions of higher water concentration to lower water concentration through selectively permeable membrane.
6.Osmotic pressure increases the number of particles dissolve in a solution increases.
7.Infiltration, molecules move through a membrane from regions of higher hydrostatic pressure toward regions of lower hydrostatic pressure.
8.Blood pressure filters water and dissolve substances through porous capillary walls.
9.Active transport moves molecules were ions from regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration.
10.Active transport requires cellular energy and carrier molecules in the cell membrane.
11.In pinocytosis, a cell membrane engulfs tiny droplets of liquid.
12.In phagocytosis, a cell membrane engulfs solid particles.
13.In exocytosis, vesicles containing secretions cues with the cell membrane, releasing the substances to the outside.

The cell cycle.
1.The cell cycle includes interphase, mitosis, cytoplasmic division, and differentiation.
2.Interphase is the stage when a cell grows, DNA replicates, and new organelles form.
3.Mitosis is the division and distribution of DNA to daughter cells.
4.In prophase chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear envelope dissolves.
5.In metaphase spindle fibers from the centrioles attached to the center meters of each chromosome; the chromosomes than a lying midway between the centrioles on the equator of the cell.
6.During anaphase centromeres separate, and the chromatids of the chromosomes separate.
7.During telophase chromosomes the long gated inform chromatid threads; the nuclear envelope reforms.
8.During cytokinesis the cytoplasm divides into two portions with the completion of mitosis.

Stem and progenitor cells.
1.A stem cell divides to yield another stem cell and a progenitor cell is partially differentiated.
2.Cells that give rise to any differentiated cell types are totipotent.
3.Cells with more restricted fates are pluripotent.
4.As cells specialize, they express different sets of genes that provide their distinct characteristics.

Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism.

Introduction.
A cell continuously carries on metabolic processes.

Metabolic processes.
1.Metabolic processes include two types of reactions, anabolism and catabolism.
2.Anabolism bills large molecules.
3.Dehydration synthesis is an example of anabolism.
4.In dehydration synthesis, hydrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups are removed, water forms, and smaller molecules bind by sharing atoms.
5.Catabolism breaks down larger molecules.
6.Hydrolysis is an example of catabolism.
7.In hydrolysis, a water molecule supplies a hydrogen atom to one portion of the molecule and hydroxyl group to a second portion; the bond between these two portions breaks.

Control of metabolic reactions.
1.Enzymes control metabolic reactions.
2.Metabolic reactions require energy to begin.
3.Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of specific metabolic reactions.
4.An enzyme acts upon the molecule by temporarily combining with it and distorting its chemical structure.
5.The shape of an enzyme molecule fits the shape of its substrate molecule.
6.When an enzyme combines with its substrate, the substrate changes, enabling it to react, forming a product.
7.Enzymes are usually named according to their substrates, with -ase at the end.
8.Cofactors are additions to some enzymes that are necessary for their function.
9.A cofactor may be an ion or a small organic molecule called a coenzyme.

Energy for metabolic reactions.
1.Energy is a capacity to produce change or to do work.
2.Common forms of energy include heat, light, sound, a lexical energy, mechanical energy, and chemical energy.
3.Whenever changes take place, energy is being transferred.
4.Energy is captured in the bond of the terminal phosphate of each ATP molecule.
5.Captured energy is released when the terminal phosphate bond of an ATP molecule breaks.

Cellular respiration.
1.A sequence of enzyme controlled reactions is a metabolic pathway.
2.Glycolysis, the first step of glucose catabolism, occurs in the cytosol and does not require oxygen.
3.Glycolysis is anaerobic.
4.Anaerobic reactions do not require oxygen.
5.Anaerobic reactions have a lower energy yield than do aerobic reactions.
6.Aerobic reactions require oxygen.
7.Aerobic reactions have a higher energy yield than do anaerobic reactions.
8.The second phase of glucose catabolism occurs in the mitochondria and requires oxygen.
9.Considerably more energy is transferred to ATP during the aerobic reactions and during glycolysis.
10.Each glucose molecule metabolized yields up to 38 ATP molecules; only two of these comes from glycolysis.

Nucleic acids and protein synthesis.
1.DNA molecules contain and maintain information that tells a cell how to synthesize proteins, including enzymes.
2.DNA information specifies inherited traits.
3.A gene is a portion of a DNA molecule that includes the genetic information for making one kind of proteins.
4.DNA molecules are replicated during interface of the cell cycle.
5.Some of the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA molecule represents the sequence of amino acids into proteins molecule.
6.RNA molecules transfer genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
7.Messenger RNA molecules, which are synthesized in the nucleus, having nucleotide sequence that is complementary to that of an exposed strand of DNA.
8.Messenger RNA molecules move into the cytoplasm, associated with ribosomes, and are templates for the synthesis of protein molecules.
9.Molecules of transfer RNA position amino acids along a strand of messenger RNA.
10.A ribosome binds to a messenger RNA and allows the transfer RNA to recognize its correct position on the messenger RNA.
11.ATP provides the energy for protein synthesis.
12.Transcription occurs in the nucleus.
13.Transcription is a function of messenger RNA.
14.Translation occurs in the cytosol.
15.Translation is a function of transfer RNA.
16.A change in the genetic information is a mutation.
17.Not all changes to DNA are harmful.


Chapter 5: tissues.

Introduction.
Cells are organized into layers or groups to form tissues, study of which is called histology.
The four major types of human tissues are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

Epithelial tissues.
1.Epithelial tissue covers all three body surfaces, forms the inner lining of body cavities, lines hollow organs, and is the major tissue of glands.
2.A basement membrane anchors epithelium to connective tissue.
3.Epithelial tissue lacks blood vessels, has cells that are tightly packed, and is continuously replaced.
4.Epithelial tissues function in protection, secretion, absorption, and excretion.
5.Simple squamous epithelial tissue consists of a single layer of thin, flattened cells through which substances passed easily.
6.Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue consists of a single layer of cube shaped cells.
7.Simple columnar epithelial tissue is composed of a long gated cells whose nuclei are near the basement membrane.
8.Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue appears stratified because the nuclei are at two or more levels.
9.Stratified squamous epithelial tissue is composed of many layers of cells, the top layers are flattened.
10.Stratified cuboidal epithelial tissue is composed of two or three layers of cube shaped cells.
11.Stratified columnar epithelial tissue is composed of a layer of elongation cells and cube shaped cells at the bottom layer.
12.Transitional epithelial tissue is specialized to become distended or stretched.
13.Glandular epithelium is composed of cells that are specialized to secrete substances.
14.Exocrine glands secrete into ducts.
15.Endocrine glands secrete into tissue fluid or blood.
16.Simple glands have ducts that do not branch before reaching the secretory portion.
17.Compound glands have ducts that branch repeatedly before the secretory portion.
18.Alveolar glands consists of sac like dilations connected to the surface by narrowed ducts.
19.Merocrine glands secrete watery fluid without loss of cytoplasm.
20.Most secretory cells are merocrine.
21.Apocrine glands lose portions of their cells during secretion.
22.Holocrine glands release cells filled with secretions.

Connective tissues.
1.Connective tissues connects, supports, protects, provides frameworks, fills spaces, stores fat, produces blood cells, protects against infection, and helps repair damaged tissues.
2.Connective tissue cells usually have considerable extracellular matrix between them.
3.The extracellular matrix consists of fibers and a ground substance.
4.Fibroblasts produce collagenous and elastic fibers.
5.Macrophages are phagocytes.
6.Mast cells release heparin and histamine and usually are near blood vessels.
7.Collagenous fibers are composed of collagen and have great tensile strength.
8.Elastic fibers are composed of elastin and are very elastic.
9.Reticular fibers are very fine collagenous fibers.
10.Loose connective tissue forms thin membrane between organs and binds them.
11.Adipose tissue is a specialized form of connective tissue that stores fat, cushions, and insulates.
12.Dense connective tissue is largely composed of strong, collagenous fibers that bind structures.
13.Regular dense connective tissue is found in tendons and ligaments.
14.Irregular dense connective tissue is found in the dermis.
15.Elastic connective tissue is mainly composed of elastic fibers and imparts an elastic quality to the walls of certain hollow internal organs such as the lungs and blood vessels.
16.Cartilage provides a supportive framework for various structures.
17.The extracellular matrix of cartilage is composed of fibers in a gel like ground substance.
18.Cartilage lacks a direct blood supply and is slow to heal.
19.Most cartilaginous structures are enclosed in a perichondrium, which contains blood vessels.
20.Major types of cartilage are hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage.
21.The extracellular matrix of bones contains mineral salts and collagen.
22.Bone cells or osteocytes usually form concentric rings around osteonic canals.
23.Canaliculi connect the bone cells.

Types of membranes.
1.Serous membranes line body cavities that do not open to the outside world.
2.Serous membranes are composed of epithelium and loose connective tissue.
3.Cells of serous membranes secrete water receivers fluid that lubricates membrane surfaces.
4.Mucous membranes line cavities and tubes opening to the outside of the body.
5.Mucus memory and are composed of epithelium and loose connective tissue.
6.Cells of mucous membranes secrete mucus.
7.The cutaneous membrane is the external body covering commonly called the skin.
8.Synovial membranes are composed of connective tissue only, and line joints.

Muscle tissues.
1.Muscle tissue contracts, moving structures that are attached to it.
2.Three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.
3.Skill muscle tissues usually attached to bones and are controlled by conscious effort.
4.Skeletal muscle cells are long and threadlike, containing several nuclei, with alternating light and dark crossed markings cold striations.
5.Smooth muscle tissue contains spindle like cells, each with one nucleus, and is in the walls of hollow internal organs.
6.Smooth muscle tissue is involuntarily controlled.
7.Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart.
8.Cardiac muscle tissue is composed of striated cells, each with a single nucleus, and are joined by intercalated discs and form branched networks.
9.Cardiac muscle tissue is involuntarily controlled.

Nervous tissues.
1.Nervous tissue is in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.
2.Neurons sense changes in respond by transmitting nerve impulses to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
3.Neurons coordinate, regulate, and integrate body activities.
4.Neuroglial cells bind and support nervous tissue.
5.Some neuroglial cells carry on phagocytosis.

Chapter 6: Integunentary system.
Introduction.
The skin and its accessory structures constitute the integunentary system.
Skin and its tissues.
Skin is a protective covering, helps regulate body temperature, houses sensory receptors, synthesizes chemicals, and excretion wastes.
Skin is composed of an epidermis, a dermis, and the subcutaneous layer.
The subcutaneous layer is technically not a part of the skin but for the purposes of our discussion here in class we are going to include the subcutaneous layer as part of the skin.
The skin is composed of an epidermis and the dermis separated by a basement membrane.
The subcutaneous layer is composed of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue that helps conserve body heat.
The subcutaneous layer contains blood vessels that supply the skin.
The epidermis.
The epidermis is a layer stratified squamous epithelium that lacks blood vessels.
The stratum basale is the deepest layer of the epidermis.
The stratum basale contains cells that divide and grow.
Epidermal cells undergo keratinization as they are pushed toward the surface.
The outermost layer of the epidermis is called the stratum corneum.
The stratum corneum is composed of dead epidermal cells.
The epidermis protects the underlying tissues against water loss, mechanical injury, and the effect of harmful chemicals.
Melanin protects underlying cells from the effects of ultraviolet light.
Melanocytes transfer melanin to nearby epidermal cells.
Melanin is the pigment responsible for racial variations in skin color.
The dermis.
The dermis is a layer composed of irregular dense connective tissue that binds the epidermis to the underlying tissues.
Normal blood vessels supplying nutrients to all skin cells.
Dermal blood vessels helped to regulate body temperature.
Nervous tissue is scattered throughout the dermis.
Accessory structures of the skin.
Each hair develops from epidermal cells at the base of the tubelike hair follicle.
As the hair shaft develops and grows older cells are pushed towards the surface and undergo keratinization.
A hair usually grows for a while, rests, and then is replaced by a new hair.
Hair color is determined by genes that direct the type and amount of pigment in each hair cell.
Nails consists of keratinized epidermal cells.
Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, which softens and waterproofs both the skin and hair.
Sebaceous glands are usually associated with hair follicles.
Eccrine sweat glands are widely distributed throughout the body and respond to elevated body temperature or emotional stress.
Sweat is pearly water but also contains salts and waste products.
Apocrine sweat glands moisten the skin when a person is emotionally upset, scared, in pain, or sexually aroused.
Heat is a byproduct of cellular respiration.
Sweat gland activity increases heat loss by evaporation.
When the air is saturated with water, sweat fails to evaporate.
Hypothermia is lowered body temperature.
Hypothermia causes shivering, mental confusion and lethargy.
Skin color.
All humans have about the same concentration of melanocytes.
Skin color is largely due to the amount of melanin in the epidermis.
Each person inherits genes for melanin production.
Ultraviolet light stimulates additional melanin production in the skin.
Carotene in the subcutaneous layer may cause the skin to appear yellowish.
Diagram labeling.
Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.2 a which is found on page 172 of your textbook.
Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.4 b which is found on page 174 of your textbook.
Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.5 a which is found on page 177 of your textbook.
Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.9 which is found on page 180 of your textbook.
Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.11 which is found on page 182 of your textbook.