AnP I Study Guide for Exam 3

Chapter 8: joints of the skeletal system.

Introduction.
1.A joint forms wherever two or more bones meet.
2.Joints are the functional junctions between bones.

Classification of joints.
3.Joints are classified according to the type of tissue that binds the bones together.
4.Bones at fibers joints are tightly fastened to each other by a layer of dense connective tissue with many collagenous fibers.
5.There are three types of fibers joints.
6.A syndesmosis has bones bound by along connective tissue fibers.
7.A suture is where flat bones are united by a thin layer of connective tissue.
8.A gomphosis is formed by the union of a cone shaped bony process with a bony socket.
9.A layer of cartilage holds together bones of cartilaginous joints.
10.There are two types of cartilaginous joints.
11.A synchondrosis occurs where bones are united by hyaline cartilage that may disappear as a result of growth.
12.A symphysis occurs where articular surfaces of the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage and the cartilage is attached to a pad of fibrocartilage.
13.Synovial joins have a more complex structure than other types of joints.
14.Synovial joints include articular cartilage, a joint capsule, and a synovial membrane.

General structure of a synovial joint.
15.Articular cartilage covers the articular ends of bones in a synovial joint.
16.Synovial joints have a joint capsule strengthen by ligaments which hold bones together.
17.A synovial membrane that secrete synovial fluid lines the inner layer of the joint capsule of the synovial joint.
18.Synovial fluid moistens, provides nutrients, and lubricates the articular surfaces of the synovial joint.
19.Menisci divide some synovial joints into compartments.
20.Bursa cushion and aid movement of tendons over bony parts.

Types of synovial joints.
21.Ball and socket joints.
22.Condyloid joints.
23.Gliding joints.
24.Hinge joints.
25.Pivot joints.
26.Saddle joints.

Types of joint movements.
27.Muscles acting at synovial joints produce movements in different directions and different planes.

Lifespan changes.
28.Joint stiffness is often the earliest sign of aging.
29.Collagen changes causes the feeling of stiffness.
30.Regular exercise can lessen the effects of aging.
31.Fibers joints are the first to begin to change and strengthen overall lifetime.
32.Synchondroses of the long bones disappear with the growth and development.
33.Changes in the symphysis joints of the vertebral column diminish flexibility and decrease height with aging.
34.Over time, synovial joints lose elasticity.

Be prepared to label the following diagram from your textbook:
35.figure 8.7
36.figure 8.8
37.figure 8.9 entirely
38.figure 8.10
39.figure 8.12
40.figure 8.13 a
41.figure 8.15 a
42.figure 8.18 a
43.figure 8.21 a

Chapter 9: muscular system.

Introduction.
44.The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, smooth, and cardiac.

Structure of the skeletal muscle.
45.Skeletal muscles are composed of nervous, vascular, and various connective tissues, as well as skeletal muscle tissue area.
46.Fascia covers each skeletal muscle.
47.Fascia is part of a complex network of connective tissue that extends throughout the body.
48.Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single muscle cell, which is the unit of contraction.
49.Muscle fibers are cylindrical cells with many nuclei.
50.The functional unit of skeletal muscle is the sarcomere.
51.The sarcomere is composed of actin and myosin filaments.
52.Myosin filaments are thick and centrally placed in the sarcomere.
53.Actin filaments are thin and peripherally placed in the sarcomere.
54.Crossed bridges of myosin filaments form linkages with actin filaments.
55.The reaction between active and myosin filaments provides the basis for contraction.
56.The sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized form of the endoplasmic reticulum.
57.The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves to sequester ionic calcium within the muscle fiber.
58.Ionic calcium is needed to catalyze muscle contraction.

Skeletal muscle contraction.
59.Muscle fiber contraction results from the sliding movement of actin and myosin filaments that shortens the muscle fiber.
60.Motor neuron stimulate muscle fibers to contract.
61.The motor end plate of a muscle fiber lies on one side of the neuromuscular junction.
62.One motor neuron in the muscle fibers associated with it constitute a motor unit.
63.The muscle fiber is usually stimulated by acetylcholine released from the end of a motor nerve fiber.
64.Acetylcholinesterase decomposes acetylcholine to prevent continuous stimulation.
65.As long as acetylcholine is present at the motor end plate, the muscle fiber continues to contract.
66.Removal of acetylcholine from the motor end plateresults in relaxation of the muscle fibers.

Excitation contraction coupling.
67.A muscle impulse signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release ionic calcium.
68.In the presence of ionic calcium, actin and myosin form cross-links.
69.When the thick and thin filaments slide past one another, the sarcomeres shorten.

Cross bridge cycling.
70.A myosin cross bridge can attach to an actin binding site and pull on the actin filament.
71.In the presence of ATP and ionic calcium, myosin and actin will continually form cross bridges and slide over each other.
72.The breakdown of ATP releases energy to provides the repetition of the cross bridge cycle.

Relaxation.
73.The muscle fiber relax is when ionic calcium is transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
74.In the absence of ionic calcium, the cross-links between actin and myosin break and do not reform.
75.Energy is required to relax the muscle fiber.
76.Relaxation is an energy dependent process.

Energy sources for contraction.
77.ATP supplies the energy for muscle fiber contraction.
78.Creatine phosphate stores energy that can be used to synthesize ATP as it is decomposed.
79.Active muscles depend on cellular respiration for energy.
80.Anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration yields few ATP molecules.
81.Anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration provide abundant ATP molecules.
82.Hemoglobin in red blood cells carries oxygen from the lungs to the body cells.
83.Myoglobin muscles cells store some oxygen temporarily.

Oxygen debt.
84.During rest or moderate exercise, oxygen is sufficient to support the aerobic reactions of cellular respiration.
85.During strenuous exercise, oxygen deficiency may develop, and lactic acid may accumulate as a result of the anaerobic reactions of cellular respiration.
86.The amount of oxygen needed to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose and to restore supplies of ATP in creatine phosphate is called oxygen debt.

Muscle fatigue.
87.Fatigue muscle loses its ability to contract.
88.Muscle fatigue is usually due to the effects of the accumulation of lactic acid.

Heat production.
89.Muscles represent an important source of body heat.
90.Most of the energy released by cellular respiration is lost as heat.

Muscular responses.
91.The latent period is the time between stimulus and responding contraction.
92.During the refractory period immediately following contraction, a muscle fiber cannot respond.
93.If they muscle fiber contracts all, it will contract completely.
94.A muscle fiber contracts according to the all or none response.
95.The length to which a muscle is stretched before stimulation effects the force it will develop.
96.Muscles whose motor units contain small numbers of muscle fibers produce finer movements.

Types of contractions.
97.And isotonic contraction occurs when the muscle contracts and its ends are pulled closer together.
98.When a muscle contracts but it's attachments to not move, the contraction is called isometric.

Fast and slow twitch muscle fibers.
99.Slow contracting, or read muscles can generate ATP fast enough to keep up with ATP breakdown and can contract for long periods.
100.Fast contracting, or white, muscles have reduced ability to carry on the aerobic reactions of cellular respiration and tend to fatigue relatively rapidly.

Skeletal muscle actions.
101.The movable end of attachment of the skeletal muscle to bone is its insertion.
102.The immovable end of attachment of the skeletal muscle to bone is its origin.
103.A prime mover is responsible for most of the movement.
104.Synergists aid prime movers.
105.Antagonists resist the movement of a prime mover.

Be prepared to label the following diagrams from your textbook:
106.figure 9.2
107.figure 9.5 a
108.figure 9.6
109.figure 9.7
110.figure 9.23
111.figure 9.24
112.figure 9.25 a
113.figure 9.28
114.figure 9.29 a
115.figure 9.32 a
116.figure 9.33 a
117.figure 9.37 a
118.figure 9.38 a
119.figure 9.39 a
120.figure 9.41 a
121.figure 9.42 a
122.figure 9.4 3A