AnP I Study Guide for Exam 2

Chapter 6: Integunentary system.

Introduction.

1. The skin and its accessory structures constitute the integunentary system.

Skin and its tissues.

1. Skin is a protective covering, helps regulate body temperature, houses sensory receptors, synthesizes chemicals, and excretion wastes.
2. Skin is composed of an epidermis, a dermis, and the subcutaneous layer.
3. The subcutaneous layer is technically not a part of the skin but for the purposes of our discussion here in class we are going to include the subcutaneous layer as part of the skin.
4. The skin is composed of an epidermis and the dermis separated by a basement membrane.
5. The subcutaneous layer is composed of loose connective tissue and adipose tissue that helps conserve body heat.
6. The subcutaneous layer contains blood vessels that supply the skin.
8. The epidermis.
9. The epidermis is a layer stratified squamous epithelium that lacks blood vessels.
10. The stratum basale is the deepest layer of the epidermis.
11. The stratum basale contains cells that divide and grow.
12. Epidermal cells undergo keratinization as they are pushed toward the surface.
13. The outermost layer of the epidermis is called the stratum corneum.
14. The stratum corneum is composed of dead epidermal cells.
15. The epidermis protects the underlying tissues against water loss, mechanical injury, and the effect of harmful chemicals.
16. Melanin protects underlying cells from the effects of ultraviolet light.
17. Melanocytes transfer melanin to nearby epidermal cells.
18. Melanin is the pigment responsible for racial variations in skin color.
20. The dermis.
21. The dermis is a layer composed of irregular dense connective tissue that binds the epidermis to the underlying tissues.
22. Normal blood vessels supplying nutrients to all skin cells.
23. Dermal blood vessels helped to regulate body temperature.
24. Nervous tissue is scattered throughout the dermis.

Accessory structures of the skin.

1. Each hair develops from epidermal cells at the base of the tubelike hair follicle.
2. As the hair shaft develops and grows older cells are pushed towards the surface and undergo keratinization.
3. A hair usually grows for a while, rests, and then is replaced by a new hair.
4. Hair color is determined by genes that direct the type and amount of pigment in each hair cell.
5. Nails consists of keratinized epidermal cells.
6. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, which softens and waterproofs both the skin and hair.
7. Sebaceous glands are usually associated with hair follicles.
8. Eccrine sweat glands are widely distributed throughout the body and respond to elevated body temperature or emotional stress.
9. Sweat is pearly water but also contains salts and waste products.
10. Apocrine sweat glands moisten the skin when a person is emotionally upset, scared, in pain, or sexually aroused.
11. Heat is a byproduct of cellular respiration.
12. Sweat gland activity increases heat loss by evaporation.
13. When the air is saturated with water, sweat fails to evaporate.
14. Hypothermia is lowered body temperature.
15. Hypothermia causes shivering, mental confusion and lethargy.

Skin color.

1. All humans have about the same concentration of melanocytes.
2. Skin color is largely due to the amount of melanin in the epidermis.
3. Each person inherits genes for melanin production.
4. Ultraviolet light stimulates additional melanin production in the skin.
5. Carotene in the subcutaneous layer may cause the skin to appear yellowish.

Diagram labeling.

1. Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.2 a which is found on page 172 of your textbook.
2. Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.4 b which is found on page 174 of your textbook.
3. Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.5 a which is found on page 177 of your textbook.
4. Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.9 which is found on page 180 of your textbook.
5. Please be prepared to label the following diagram: figure 6.11 which is found on page 182 of your textbook.

Chapter 7: skeletal system.

Introduction.

1. Individual bones are the organs of the skeletal system.
2. A bone contains very active tissues.
3. Bone support and protect soft tissues, provide attachments for muscles, house blood producing cells, and store inorganic salts.

Bone structure.

1. Bones are grouped according to their shapes-long, short, flat, irregular, or round (sesamoid).
2. The epiphysis is the bone and which is covered by articular cartilage.
3. The shaft of the bone is also called the diaphysis.
4. Except for the articular cartilage, bone is covered by a periosteum.
5. Compact bone as a continuous extracellular matrix with no gaps.
6. Spongy bone has irregular interconnecting spaces between bony plates.
7. Both compact and spongy bone are strong and resist bending.
8. The diaphysis contains a medullary cavity filled with marrow.
9. Compact bone contains osteons cemented together.
10. The osteons contains a central canal which contain blood vessels that nourish the cells of the osteons.
11. Perforating canals connect central canals transversely and communicate with the bones surface and the medullary cavity.
12. Diffusion from the surface of thin tiny plates nourishes cells of spongy bones.
13. Intramembranous bones develop from layers of connective tissue.
14. Osteoblasts within the membranous layers form bone tissue.
15. Mature bone cells are called osteocytes.
16. Most of the bones of the skeleton are endochondral.
17. Endochondral bones develop from cartilaginous skeletons.
18. Endochondral bone forms from primary ossification centers that appear in the diaphysis.
19. Secondary ossification centers appear in the epiphyses.
20. Epiphyseal plates are responsible for lengthening the bone.
21. Long bones continue to lengthen until the epiphyseal plates are ossified.
22. Growth in thickness of the bone is due to ossification beneath the periosteum.
23. The action of osteoclasts forms the medullary cavity.
24. Osteoclasts and osteoblasts continually remodeled bone.
25. The total mass of bone remains nearly constant.

Bone function.

1. Bones shape and form body structures.
2. Bones support and protect his softer, underlying tissues.
3. Bones and muscles interact, producing movement.
4. Red bone marrow houses developing red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.
5. The extracellular matrix of bone tissue contains abundant calcium phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite.
6. When blood calcium ion concentration is high, osteoblasts are stimulated to form bone tissue and store calcium salts.

Skeletal organization.

1. Usually a human skeleton has 206 bones, but the number may vary.
2. The extra bones in sutures are called central bones.
3. The skeleton can be divided into axial and appendicular portions.
4. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
5. The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs.

The skull.

• The skull consists of 22 bones, which include eight cranial bones and 14 facial bones.
• The cranium encloses and protects the brain and provide attachments for muscles.
• Some cranial bones contain error filled paranasal sinuses that help to reduce the weight of the skull.

Lifespan changes.

1. Gradually bone loss exceeds bone replacement.
2. Aging increases risk of bone fractures.

Diagram labeling.

1. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.1 which is found on page 194 of your textbook.
2. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.2 which is found on page 194 of your textbook.
3. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.4 which is found on page 196 of your textbook.
4. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.13 which is found on page 204 of your textbook.
5. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.15 which is found on page 207 of your textbook.
6. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.19 which is found on page 210 of your textbook.
7. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.34 and figure 7.36 which is found on pages 222 and 223 of your textbook.
8. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.41 which is found in page 228 of your textbook.
9. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.42 which is found on page 229 of your textbook.
10. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.47 a which is found on page 234 to textbook.
11. Please be prepared to label the following: figure 7.50 which is found on page 237 of your textbook.